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COPYRIGHT 
1918 


PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Their  CONSTRUCTION,  HEATING, 
VENTILATION,  SANITATION, 
LIGHTING  and  EQUIPMENT 


By 

G.  L.  LOCKHART 

Architect 


Published  by 

H.  W.  KINGSTON  COMPANY 

527-533  MINNESOTA  STREET 
ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 


m    if  in  -  ,,    , 


T|!T  ™_  rryirmmi—BB^j  m  i  j^nM»ipij[i|^^Bi 


Preface 


VARIOUS  articles  have  been  written  by  Architects  familiar  with 
School  Planning,  dealing  with  the  several  departments  of  School 
Work,  some  describing  at  length  the  requirements  of  Domestic 
Science  departments,  others,  Manual  Training  or  Science  equipment. 
Still,  others,  describing  in  detail,  the  ventilation  or  sanitation.  How- 
ever, it  would  require  considerable  time  for  a  busy  School  Board 
Member,  Superintendent  or  Principal  to  correllate  all  the  facts  essen- 


tial to  the  planning  of  a  School  Building  in  the  length  of  time  usually 
at  their  command,  so  the  writer  will  endeavor  to  supply  this  informa- 
tion in  condensed  form  to  cover  all  departments  of  a  building,  wheth- 
er it  be  a  Grade,  Junior  or  High  School,  or  all  combined,  giving  in 
plain  language,  devoid  of  technicalities,  the  main  essentials,  so  that 
some  Standard  of  Construction,  Heating,  Ventilation,  Sanitation,  Light- 
ing and  Equipment  may  be  adopted. 

The  majority  of  books  on  School  planning  have  been  written  by 
eminent  educators  who  have  written  from  the  educational  standpoint 
more  than  from  the  Architectural  and  it  is  hoped  that  this  book  will 
so  combine  both  as  to  prove  of  value  to  the  busy  man  who  must  of  ne- 
cessity secure  authentic  information  on  the  subject  of  schools  before 
entering  a  School  Building  program,  for  the  erection  and  equipemnt 
of  a  new  building,  or  the  modernizing  of  an  old  building,  to  make  it 
fit  for  continued  use  as  a  school  building. 


4eies3 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  One 

The  Need  of  Improved  School  Building 

THE  free  public  school  system  of  this  country  is  one  of  the  greatest  institutions  in 
the  world  and  has  probably,  more  than  any  other,  been  the  means  of  placing  the 
United  States  on  the  high  plane  of  civilization  it  now  enjoys.  It  enables  all  chil- 
dren, regardless  of  the  financial  circumstances  of  their  parents,  to  obtain  a  practical 
education  and  there  is  little  excuse  for  any  pupil  physically  able  to  attend  the  public 
school  being  unfitted  to  enter  into  any  occupation  that  he  may  see  fit  to  pursue. 

The  people  of  this  country  are  waking  up  to  the  realization,  that  education  is  the 
fundamental  need  of  the  growing  generation,  that  our  country  can  be  sustained  in  its 
upward  progress  only  by  the  proper  development  of  the  intellectual,  moral  and  physical, 
in  the  growing  child.  More  and  more,  we  realize  that  our  greatest  debt  and  most  sacred 
obligation  is  to  our  children,  and  that  no  expense  is  too  great,  no  tax  too  heavy  to  bear, 
if  it  means  their  betterment;  and  in  order  to  obtain  this  result,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
modern  improved  facilities  in  keeping  with  the  advancement  of  the  age  in  which  we  live. 

A  glance  backward  over  the  wonderful  progress  made  in  all  lines  of  endeavor  dur- 
ing the  past  twenty  years  should  convince  any  right  thinking  person  that  the  schools 
of  twenty  years  ago  are  inadequate  for  the  needs  of  today.  As  we  discard  the  scythe 
for  the  modern  mowing  machine,  or  the  old  fashioned  cradle  for  the  new  improved  binder 
and  reaper,  so,  in  like  manner,  we  must  discard  the  old  methods  of  teaching  for  the 
improved,  broadened  and  more  adequate  methods  in  keeping  with  the  needs  of  the  pupils. 
We  must  also  discard  the  old  wornout,  unsanitary,  unventilated,  poorly  lighted  school 
buildings,  which  have  more  than  served  their  purpose.  We  must  carefully  examine  our 
newer  buildings,  as  we  become  acquainted  with  our  needs,  and  improve  them  as  they 
lack  the  essentials,  and  build  new,  if  need  be,  to  provide  sanitary,  well  lighted,  well  heated, 
well  ventilated,  well  equipped  modern  school  buildings  if  our  young  people  are  to  do 
the  best  they  are  capable  of. 

The  average  business  man  of  today  would  no  more  think  of  running  his  business 
in  the  fashion  of  a  hundred  years  ago  than  he  would  think  of  discarding  the  automobile 
for  the  antiquated  ox  cart,  yet  many  intelligent  people  are  still  blind  to  the  fact  that 
a  school  house  as  erected  twenty  years  ago,  is  as  totally  inadequate  for  present  school 
purposes,  as  the  ox  cart  is  inadequate  compared  to  the  automobile  for  present  day  travel. 
It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  draw  some  comparison  as  a  means  of  enlightenment 
for  the  average  taxpayer  and  as  an  assistant  to  the  School  Boards  in  their  endeavor 
to  provide  the  essential  features  of  an  efficient  economically  operated  school.  We  will 
therefore  illustrate  some  of  the  conditions  that  prevail  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  in  all 
parts  of  our  country,  these  are  not  extreme  cases  but  the  average  condition  in  buildings 
erected  for  fifteen  to  twenty  years. 

It  is  just  as  essential  to  improve  and  modernize  existing  buildings  as  it  is  to  build 
additional  new  buildings,  in  fact,  more  essential  in  many  cases,  as  it  is  a  crime  against 
childhood,  to  permit  small  growing  children  to  be  cooped  up  in  poorly  ventilated,  dark, 
indifferently  lighted  buildings,  whose  sanitary  arrangements  usually  are  the  grief  of  the 
Health  Departments. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Two 


Lighting,  Ventilating  and  Rearrangement  of  Old  School 
Buildings  for  Their  Continued  Use 

THE  busy  School  Board  member  when  approached  by  the  superintendent  with  a  re- 
quest for  improved  equipment,  or  improvements  of  any  kind,  invariably  demands  why? 
— Why  do  you  need  this?  Why  do  you  need  that?  The  School  Board  is  usually 
made  up  of  the  best  men  of  the  community;  men  chosen  for  their  good  judgment  and 
business  ability,  who  entertain  no  thought  of  compensation  other  than  the  good  of  the 
community  which  they  serve  so  unselfishly.  Because  of  this  trust  they  are  most  careful 
that  their  duty  be  well  done,  consequently,  they  are  cautious  about  expenditures,  and 
the  improvements  of  buildings,  addition  to  equipment,  etc.,  usually  mean  large  ex- 
penditures, and  large  expenditures  are  the  bane  of  the  tax  payer.  So  the  question,  why 
do  we  need  improved  conditions  in  our  school  buildings  must  be  convincingly  answered 
to  call  forth  the  needed  expenditure. 

There  are  numerous  needs  for  improvement  in  most  of  the  old  buildings  which 
we  will  enumerate. 

First— Lighting 

Lighting  from  two  to  three  sides,  causes  cross  lights  and  shadows.  Invariably,  the 
windows  are  small,  wide  apart,  furnishing  but  a  small  percentage  of  the  necessary  light, 
and  that  so  poorly  distributed  that  a  majority  of  pupils  are  compelled  to  strain  their 
eyes  all  the  time  while  studying.  We  find  many  buildings  with  10  to  15%  of  the  total 
floor  area  in  light,  while  20%  is  the  minimum  amount.    With  dark,  poorly  lighted  rooms 

for  study  purposes,  it  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at  that  pu- 
pils complain  of  headaches, 
become  nervous  and  irrita- 
ble and  fall  behind  in  their 
work.  Abnormalities  pre- 
sent themselves  on  every 
side;  enlarged  tonsils,  tonsi- 
litis,  adenoids,  frequent 
colds,  rheumatic  pains,  etc., 
caused  by  dry  air  and  poor 
ventilation  are  very  much 
augmented  by  poor  light 
and  this  trouble  sets  in  very 
quickly  where  bad  light  ex- 
ists, and  will  continue  so 
long  as  the  condition  caus- 
ing it,  continues  to  exist. 
The  pupils  become  dull  and 
listless,  their  eyes  lose  their 
snap  and  sparkle  becoming 
dull  and  colorless,  astigma- 
tism and  near-sightedness  is  soon  contracted.  You  may  ask  any  specialist  why  so  many 
glasses  are  worn  and  he  will  tell  you  that  it  is  mainly  due  to  poor  light  in  school  rooms. 
It  is  estimated  that  15  to  25%  of  all  eye  troubles  could  be  eliminated  by  proper  light 
properly  diffused  and  regulated. 

This  condition  should  be  carefully  investigated  and  corrected.  The  window  open- 
ings enlarged  on  one  side  to  admit  adequate  light  for  the  entire  room;  piers  between 
windows   removed;   the   old   openings  bricked  up  on   the   other  sides  of   the  rooms; 


Fig.  No.  1 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Fig.  2 


if  the  rooms  are  deep,  provide  sheet  prisms  in  the  upper  half  of  the  top  sash  to  deflect 
the  light,  throwing  it  to  the  back  part  of  the  room.  Provide  adjustable  curtains  for  all 
windows  so  prisms  may  be  covered,  and  the  light  regulated  during  very  bright  days. 
The  two  cuts,  figures  1  and 
2  illustrate  a  condition  tak- 
en from  an  old  building  at 
Waverly,  Iowa,  showing 
how  totally  inadequate  the 
light  was  in  the  school 
rooms.  Notice  the  shape 
of  the  room  (Fig.  2).  Of 
course  this  was  an  impro- 
vised school  room,  due  to 
crowded  conditions  in  the 
school  buildings,  and  when 
this  was  written  a  bond  is- 
sue for  a  new  school  had  just 
been  defeated  by  the  mis- 
guided tax  payers,  which 
goes  to  show  that  vigorous 
campaign  methods  must  be 
resorted  to  by  the  School 
Boards  to  educate  the  peo- 
ple to  their  needs  and  the 
needs  of  the  children. 

Second— Ventilation 

When  we  approach  the  subject  of  ventilation  we  are  brought  up  against  a  problem 
that  twenty  years  ago  was  comparatively  unknown  except  in  the  larger  cities,  and  then 
only  in  a  crude  way;  consequently,  school  buildings  in  small  towns  and  country  districts 
were  either  poorly  ventilated  or  not  at  all.  The  old  system  of  hot  air  heat  came  very 
near  being  a  ventilation  system,  owing  to  the  circulation  of  air  it  created,  yet  its  in- 
adequacy under  extreme  cold  temperatures,  its  lack  of  regulation,  and  general  uncer- 
tainty coupled  with  dry  air  and  the  continued  recirculation  of  foul  dusty  air,  made  it 
a  menace  to  health.  Where  ventilation  was  tried  by  means  of  vents  to  the  roof  they 
proved  only  of  partial  benefit,  as  many  such  vents  worked  downward  permitting  quan- 
tities of  cold  air  to  come  into  the  room  via  the  vent  which  was  supposed  to  draw  out  the 
foul  air  from  the  room,  and  in  consequence  little  or  no  benefit  was  derived  and  in  many 
instances  positive  harm  resulted.  Various  schemes  have  been  tried  out  during  the  past 
twenty  years  as  the  needs  of  ventilation  in  school  buildings  became  more  apparent  and 
numerous;  discarded  ventilating  plants  may  be  found  in  old  school  buildings  through- 
out the  country  as  evidence  of  their  ineffectiveness,  and  still  many  others  may  be  found 
in  operation,  where  thousands  of  dollars  have  been  spent  and  little  or  no  results  are 
being  secured.  In  many  old  buildings  systems  of  heat  ducts  have  been  installed,  where 
small  steam  coils  have  been  located  at  the  foot  of  the  stacks  to  warm  the  air  entering  the 
room  through  the  stacks,  the  stacks  having  been  built  of  brick  with  rough  mortar-joints 
projecting  into  the  ducts,  seriously  retarding  the  free  travel  of  the  air  and  to  make  the 
matter  worse,  heavy  cast  iron  register  faces  cover  the  opening  into  the  room  from  the 
duct  cutting  off  fully  25%  of  the  air  which  reaches  the  register.  Go  into  your  own  build- 
ing and  see  if  such  a  condition  exists  there,  if  it  does,  rip  off  the  heavy  old  cast  register 
faces,  line  the  flues  with  metal  or  some  other  smooth  hard  surface  to  reduce  the  friction, 
provide  splitters  and  diffusers  as  herein-elsewhere  mentioned  and  illustrated  in  Chapter 
Twenty-two,  and  you  will  double  the  efficiency  of  your  old  system,  so  far  as  it  delivers  the 
air  to  the  rooms.  However,  this  system  is  still  deficient  as  the  vent  flues  are  usually 
like  the  first  vents  mentioned,  they  do  not  draw  the  air  out  of  the  rooms  properly.  So, 
to  overcome  this,  aspirating  coils, — that  is,  heating  coils  to  start  the  air  moving  upward, 
— are  placed  in  these  ducts  to  heat  the  air  coming  out  of  the  rooms  at  the  floor  level, 


8 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


by  this  means  creating  a  circulation.  This  system  of  indirect  coils  and  vents  with  as- 
pirating coils  works  quite  well  during  moderately  cold  weather  but  under  extreme  tem- 
peratures it  becomes  difficult  to  heat  the  building,  and  again,  in  moderate  weather,  when 
the  heat  is  turned  off,  circulation  practically  stops  and  there  is  little  or  no  travel  of  air 
and  stagnation  results.  To  create  forced  circulation  of  air,  fans  have  been  installed 
in  many  of  our  old  buildings,  creating  a  rapid  circulation  of  air,  and  a  few  years  past, 
this  was  considered  the  last  word  in  ventilation.  Cold  outside  air  was  taken  in  over 
huge  stacks  of  "vento"  heating  coils  heated  to  80  degrees,  then  forced  by  a  fan  through 
heat  ducts  into  the  room  arriving  at  a  supposed  temperature  of  70  degrees;  where  it  was 
circulated  through  the  room  from  one  heat  register,  usually  about  eight  feet  above  the 
floor  then  taken  out  by  a  vent  situated  at  the  floor  level  which  runs  to  a  ventilator  on 
the  roof  and  is  there  exhausted.  The  foregoing  systems  are  only  indifferently  success- 
ful as  all  of  them  endeavor  only  to  move  the  air  and  they  lack  some  of  the  most  essential 
requirements  of  perfect  ventilation, — that  is,  uniform  distribution  of  air  through  the 
rooms  in  sufficient  quantities,  cleaning  of  the  air  from  dust,  smoke  and  foul  odors,  also 
the  humidification  of  the  air  which  is  most  essential  to  the  health  of  pupils.  Perhaps 
your  school  is  equipped  with  fan  ventilation  and  you  are  resting  easy,  believing  you 
have  perfect  ventilation  in  your  school  building,  if  so,  it  might  be  well  to  investigate  the 

actual  condition  and  where 
you  find  a  need  for  improve- 
ment, use  your  efforts  to  see 
that  your  children  are  pro- 
vided with  proper  ventila- 
tion which  means  improve- 
ment in  health,  elimination, 
to  a  large  extent,  of  colds, 
coughs,  bronchitis,  tonsili- 
tis,  and  kindred  ills.  Ob- 
serve the  condition  of  the 
blades  of  the  fan  shown  in 
(Fig.  3)  covered  with  dust 
and  dirt.  The  ordinary 
types  of  ventilation  permits 
of  dust,  smoke,  dirt  and 
odors  passing  through  into 
the  rooms  from  the  intake. 
Dry  dust  is  one  of  the  worst 
disease  germ  carriers  and 
some  means  should  be 
adopted  to  overcome  this 
condition,  adding  to  the 
present  system  what  is  nec- 
essary to  provide  clean, 
fresh,  humidified  air  which 
will  add  to  the  efficiency  of 
the  pupils  from  15  to  25% 
and  correspondingly  im- 
prove their  health.  A  com- 
plete description  of  the  rem- 
edy will  be  found  in  Chap- 
ters 4,  22  and  24. 
Third— Arrangement 

The  planning  of  a  school  building  twenty  years  ago,  did  not  contemplate  manual 
training,  domestic  science,  or  agricultural  departments,  physical  training  was  scarcely 
thought  of.  Gymnasiums  were  for  only  the  large  city  schools  and  for  grade  schools  not 
at  all,  consequently,  as  these  departments  were  added  one  by  one,  more  space  was  needed 


Fig  3. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 9 

in  the  school  buildings  and  dark,  damp  basements  have  been  fitted  up  to  serve  this  pur- 
pose and  at  best,  have  been  but  poorly  equipped.  In  a  majority  of  the  schools  the  attic 
space  (in  schools  having  a  pitched  roof)  has  been  floored,  plastered  and  made  to  serve. 
In  one  school  building  at  Sheldon,  Iowa,  the  attic  space  included  a  science  laboratory, 
a  sewing  room,  a  kitchen  and  a  class  room,  each  lighted  with  a  single  dormer  window 
and  a  small  improvised  gymnasium  whose  total  equipment  consisted  of  two  baskets  for 
basket  ball,  this  room  having  light  only  from  the  windows  over  the  stairway,  about 
12%  of  the  light  necessary.  These  rooms  had  no  ventilation  and  of  necessity,  located 
where  they  were,  had  low  ceilings.  All  the  toilets  were  in  the  basement,  which  location 
compelled  all  pupils  to  travel  many  flights  of  stairs  daily.  Most  of  the  old  buildings 
are  in  just  such  a  condition  at  the  present  time,  they  are  crowded  with  pupils  and  poorly 
equipped.  Addition  of  departments  has  filled  every  available  space,  teaching  has  be- 
come difficult  and  pupils  do  not  receive  the  attention  and  consideration  they  deserve 
owing  to  the  inability  of  their  teachers  to  overcome  the  handicap  of  an  old,  inadequate 
school. 

There  is  only  one  solution  to  crowded  conditions  and  that  is  more  adequate  facil- 
ities. A  careful  survey  of  existing  conditions  should  be  made  as  there  may  be  several 
solutions  to  the  problem.  Entirely  new  buildings  may  be  necessary  and  most  economical. 
A  sub-division  of  the  school,  dividing  it  into  two  or  more  units,  or  if  the  present  building 
is  sufficiently  large  for  class  work  if  the  industrial  departments  are  moved,  a  separate 
building  may  be  erected  for  this  purpose  and  the  old  building  improved  to  meet  modern 
conditions.  Where  all  departments  have  been  contained  in  one  large  building  it  is  quite 
often  feasible  to  erect  one  new  building  for  High  School,  accommodating  all  the  depart- 
mental work,  gymnasium  and  auditorium.  If  the  town  is  small,  this  arrangement  is 
good,  especially  if  the  grade  buildings  are  not  far  away,  as  it  enables  grade  pupils  to 
take  advantage  of  departmental  work  and  physical  training.  The  younger  children 
by  all  means  should  have  this  training  as  they  need  it  more  than  the  older  pupils.  Now, 
after  you  have  relieved  the  congested  condition  you  should  give  careful  thought  to  the 
rearrangement  of  the  old  building.  Too  often,  a  new  building  is  erected  providing  older 
pupils  with  all  the  improved  facilities,  and  nothing  is  done  to  the  old  building  more  than 
to  divide  a  few  rooms,  providing  such  repairs  as  may  be  obviously  necessary.  This, 
usually,  leaves  the  younger  children,  who  are  in  the  formative  period,  needing  the  best 
possible  facilities,  to  contend  with  the  poor  light,  poor  ventilation  and  sanitation,  of 
the  old  building;  while  the  older  pupils,  who  are  more  hardened  and  less  liable  to  be 
affected  by  conditions,  have  the  best  possible  facilities.  This  is  an  injustice  and  calls 
for  thorough  improvement  in  the  old  buildings  to  make  them  as  fit  for  use  as  the  new 
structure.  If  you  have  a  building  program  jn  front  of  you  that  contemplates  the  con- 
tinued use  of  your  old  building,  be  sure  your  funds  are  ample  to  remodel  the  old  building 
until  conditions  there  are  on  a  par  with  the  new  structure.  (See  cuts  Chapter  Four) 
as  to  final  arrangement  of  an  old  high  and  grade  building  for  grade  purposes.  When 
this  building  was  finished,  lighting  and  ventilation  improved,  it  was  so  sweet  and  fresh 
inside  that  you  would  be  unable  to  detect  any  appreciable  difference  between  it  and  the 
new  building  which  was  erected  at  the  same  time  this  building  was  remodeled.  To  prop- 
erly remodel  an  old  building  is  always  expensive  and  there  is  always  a  question  as  to 
whether  it  might  not  be  more  economical  to  completely  wreck  the  old  building,  use  the 
salvage  and  apply  that  in  the  construction  of  a  new  building,  and  in  the  building  illus- 
trated in  Chapter  Four  it  would  have  been  more  economical  to  do  this,  but  the  School 
District  had  voted  $9,000.00  to  remodel  the  old  building  and  $80,000.00  for  a  new  build- 
ing, consequently,  there  was  no  choice  but  to  remodel  This  work  actually  cost  $10,500.00 
when  bids  were  taken.  Estimating  the  salvage  at  $2,000.00  which  might  have  gone  into 
the  new  building  as  unimportant  retaining  walls,  wall  backing  and  form  lumber,  together 
with  slate,  radiation,  etc.,  the  actual  value  would  have  been  $12,500.00  to  be  added  to 
the  new  building,  another  $5,000  added,  this  would  have  supplied  the  same  room  space  in 
the  new  building  and  the  cost  of  continued  up-keep  would  have  been  materially  reduced, 
principally  the  heating  and  janitor  service.  The  fuel  bill  alone  would  amount  to  a  saving  of 
$200  a  year;  interest  at  5%  on  $5,000  would  be  $250  per  annum,  so  the  saving  in  fuel  alone 


10 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


would  almost  pay  the  interest  on  the  increased  investment  of  $5,000.  The  ground  occupied 
by  the  old  building  could  have  been  turned  into  play  ground  space  or  otherwise  used  to 
advantage.  In  many  instances  in  order  to  continue  the  use  of  old  buildings,  new  sites  are 
acquired  at  considerable  expense  which  might  have  been  added  to  the  building  fund  for  a 
new  building  on  the  same  site.  The  School  Board  who  remodeled  the  building  just  referred 
to,  were  unanimously  agreed  that  an  entire  new  plant  should  be  provided  and  a  bond  issue 
for  this  purpose  failed  owing  to  the  taxpayers  unfamiliarity  with  the  subject  and  they 
voted  against  their  own  best  interests;  immediately  afterward  they  proposed  that  the  old 
building  be  remodeled  and  a  new  High  School  built,  and  the  vote  carried  which  clearly 
indicates  that  the  voter  does  not  alway  get  what  he  should  have,  and  also  shows  conclu- 
sively that  a  School  Board  is  many  times  seriously  handicapped  in  securing  the  best  results 
from  their  efforts. 

Figures  1  and  2  previously  mentioned  in  this  chapter  and  figure  4  here  shown,  gives 
some  idea  of  the  desperate  need  of  rearrangement  if  they  are  to  be  continued  in  use  as 

school  rooms.  No  comment 
is  necessary  to  convince  the 
reader  of  their  total  unsuita- 
bility  for  school  purposes, 
yet  there  are  many  such 
rooms  being  used  all  over 
the  country  at  the  present 
time,  and  in  consequence 
many  pupils  are  falling  be- 
hind in  their  work,  their 
teachers  are  criticised  by 
the  public  because  of  the 
pupils  poor  showing  and 
many  otherwise  intelligent 
students  become  tired  and 
lazy  and  make  poor  head- 
way when  compelled  to  work 
under  such  conditions,  and 
usually  the  pupil  is  criticised 
when  the  blame  should  be 
placed  on  an  indifferent 
public  who  of  times  have 
been  quoted  as  saying:  "It  was  good  enough  for  me  when  I  attended  school  and  it  is 
plenty  good  enough  for  my  children."  It  is  time  that  a  sleepy  public  be  awakened  to 
modern  progress  and  be  made  acquainted  with  existing  conditions  so  that  the  force  of  its 
vote  will  secure  the  necessary  improvements  for  the  greatest  good  to  our  student  population. 


Fig.  4 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


11 


Chapter  Three 

Make  the  Old  School  Sanitary 

BUILDINGS  built  some  few  years  past  either  had  outside  closets  built  over  a  vault, 
dry  closets  built  into  the  building  in  the  basement,  or  the  ordinary  water  flushing 
type  of  toilets  which  also  were  built  into  the  basement. 

The  only  thing  that  maybe  said  about  the  old  outside  closets  is  that  they  should  be  dis- 
posed of,  banished  forever  from  a  civilized  community  with  the  earliest  possible  dispatch. 

Dry  closets  are  used  in  a  number  of  localities  with  varied  results;  if  constantly  watched 
theyare  indifferently  successful,  but  they  can  scarcelybe  recommended  for  a  modern  improv- 
ed school,  and  thewriterwill  not  take  space  to  explain  their  use,  as  itwouldbe  a  waste  of  time. 

A  typical  example  of  the  old  water  flushing  type  of  closet  is  shown  by  Figure  5, 
located  in  a  basement  where  concrete  block  foundation  walls  and  a  porous  concrete  floor 
permits  foul  odors  and  am- 
monia fumes  to  be  absorbed 
until  one  is  almost  choked 
when   entering   the  room. 
Notice  the  room  is  provided 
with  three  small  windows 
which  come  at  the   grade 
line  of  the  building  admit- 
ting very  little  light,  in  fact 
less  than   one-half   the   re- 
quired amount.    Notice  the 
pool  of  water  standing  on 
the  floor  around  the  toilet 
fixture  shown  under  the  first 
stall,  this  was  caused  by 
choking  of  the  fixture  and 
flooding,  there  being  no  floor 
drain  this  condition  was  hard 
to  overcome,  or   eliminate. 
Again  the  old  type  of  tank 
closet  having  a  chain  pull  is 
very    unsatisfactory    in   a 
school  building  as  the  float  flushing  device  soon  gets  out  of  order  and  the  toilets  do  not  flush, 
thus  causing  a  very  unsanitary  condition.    These  closets  being  located  in  the  basement  with 
porous  walls,  floors  and  ceilings,  with  no  ventilation  are  most  unsanitary  and  should  be  re- 
moved. Toilet  facilities  should  be  provided  on  each  floor  with  abundance  of  outside  light;  a 
positive  circulation  of  air  should  be  provided  through  the  rooms;  walls,  floors  and  ceilings 
should  be  impervious  to  absorption;  fixtures  shouldbe  clean  and  sanitary,  of  the  ventilated 
automatic  seat  action,  direct  flushing  type.  Stall  partitions  also  should  be  of  a  washable  ma- 
terial, impervious  to  absorption  and  of  such  a  nature  that  any  writings,  markings, etc.,  of  an 
immoral  or  objectionable  nature  may  be  readily  erased.  Vents  must  be  installed  opening  di- 
rect to  the  outside  with  no  connection  to  any  other  part  of  the  ventilation  system,  these  must 
be  arranged  with  aspirating  heat  coils  for  winter  and  a  positive  exhaust  ventilator  on  the 
roof  to  operate  during  warm  weather  aided  by  an  exhaust  fan  if  the  condition  warrants  it. 
While  the  toilet  and  shower  rooms  are  the  main  source  of  poor  sanitation  in  the 
building,  yet  the  common  type  of  drinking  fountain  is  usually  of  an  unsanitary  nature. 
Laboratory  and  science  room  sinks  quite  often  become  unsanitary  and  need  renovation, 
so  the  whole  problem  should  be  carefully  looked  into  and  remedied.     Chapter  24  will 
explain  the  various  satisfactory  materials  to  be  used  in  securing  clean,  sanitary  toilet 
rooms,  and  Chapter  23,  the  best  means  of  sewage  disposal. 


Fig.  5 


12 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Four 

How  An  Old  School  Building  May  Be  Ventilated  Economically 

IT  SHOULD  always  be  the  aim  of  a  new  building  program  to  include  sufficient  funds  to 
provide  complete  ventilation  in  the  old  buildings  while  erecting  the  new,  but  as  a 
usual  thing  funds  are  so  nearly  exhausted  when  the  new  buidling  has  been  pro- 
vided for  that  little  or  no  funds  are  available  for  the  old  building  and  it  suffers  in  con- 


Fh)  7  -  fitoT  FloojtPlak  - 


"TiStKiirKSC 


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— * 


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sequence.    However,  the  following  method  may  be  employed  in  an  old  building  quite  suc- 
cessfully at  a  minimum  cost. 

This  method  can  best  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  the  plans  of  the  Old  Perham, 
Minnesota  High  and  Grade  School  Building,  Figures  6,  7,  8  and  9,  which  has  been  re- 
modeled to  be  used  as  a  grade  school  and  where  they  had  no  ventilation  or  toilet  facilities 

all  have  been  provided  at  a  reasonable  expense.  As  the 
fan,  air  washer,  heating  coils  and  humidity  control  would 
cost  just  as  much  as  in  a  new  building,  nothing  need  be 
said  about  them  here,  as  the  economy  depends  entirely 
upon  the  installation  of  the  heat  and  vent  flues,  these  will 
be  described  fully. 

Figure  6  illustrates  the  location  of  the  fan  connected 
to  a  large  heat  duct  on  the  basement  ceiling  which  car- 
ries the  air  from  the  fan  to  the  vertical  heat  risers,  this 
PtTAiL/VALLl)OACDPLt^iyi(RAn5tR  usually  is  made  of  galvanized  iron  or  of  black  iron 
yu/PE/iDtD  fRon  (tiu/iq      (fVjio)  painted,  but  in  this  old  building  in  order  to  install  a 


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PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


13 


system  at  all  it  was  necessary  to  use  something  that  would  serve  the  purpose  and 
reduce  the  cost,  so  it  was  decided  to  use  a  good  grade  of  wall  board  with  one  surface  sized 
to  make  a  hard  smooth  surface  to  eliminate  friction.  This  was  built  and  suspended  as 
indicated  by  detail  (see  figure  10),  connected  at  ceiling  with  vertical  heat  ducts  which  were 
lined  in  same  manner.  The  vents  in  the  room  were  lined  with  wall  board  running  up  to  the 
attic  and  these  connected  with  a  wall  board  return  air  chamber  (figure  9),  which  draws 
75%  of  the  air  back  through  a  return  air  duct,  which  is  indicated  on  Figure  9  directly  under 
the  42-inch  fresh  air  ventilator.  This  return  air  duct  drops  down  and  connects  with  the 
Air  Washer  in  basement,  thus  creating  a  recirculation  of  75%  of  the  air  under  extreme 


«-j?rr 


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rij  a    ".SrcoMrFLooiL-PLAJf^ 

cold  temperatures.  Note  on  Figure  9  that  a  42-inch  exhaust  ventilator  is  also  situated  near 
the  center  of  the  roof  both  of  these  ventilators  are  controlled  by  automatic  dampers  and  as 
the  outside  temperature  rises  the  dampers  open  permitting  more  outside  air  to  enter, 
re-circulating  less  of  the  inside  air  until  all  outside  air  is  used.  The  wall  board  ducts  are 
light,  easily  built,  and  serviceable  as  they  form  a  smooth  lining  to  assist  the  velocity  of  the 
air,  creating  but  a  slight  static  pressure  against  the  fan.  The  inside  surface  should  be 
painted  two  coats  of  "Elaterite,"  "Insulite,"  or  other  similar  paint.  The  wall  board  is 
furnished  in  lengths  up  to  16  feet  and  can  be  run  the  full  length  of  a  floor  without  joints, 
thus  forming  a  tight  duct  that  will  not  permit  of  air  leakage.  The  only  cutting  necessary 
in  the  old  building  is  through  the  floors,  as  the  wall  board  ducts  are  built  up  against  the 
plastered  walls  of  the  rooms  as  shown  by  detail  (Figure  11).    After  the  size  of  ducts  is 


01  j     PU>tereJ      Vail 


determined,  strips  (A)  are  secured  to  the  old  plastered 
wall,  and  studding  (B)  are  set  up;  the  wall  board  (C)  is 
securely  fastened  in  place,  then  the  entire  surface  of  the 
ducts  is  covered  with  wall  board  (D) ;  then  strips  (E)  are 
nailed  on  to  form  grounds  for  lath  and  plaster  and  the 
DETAIL/  VALL  BOARD  DUCT  work  is  then  finished  in  the  regular  way  with  splitters  and 
f'3 "  diffusers  located  in  the  heat  ducts  8'-0"  above  the  floor 


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PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


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PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 15 

and  vent  ducts  at  the  floor  line  on  the  same  side  of  the  room  as  the  heat  ducts  and  adja- 
cent to  them.  The  entire  installation  of  the  work  in  this  building  was  accomplished  at  an 
expense  of  $786. 

The  wall  board  used  was  an  ordinary  wood  fibre  board,  but  a  wall  board  composed 
of  two  layers  of  paper  filled  with  Gypsum  plaster  might  have  been  used  and  the  furring 
strips  (E)  and  the  lath  over  it,  might  have  been  omitted,  plaster  being  applied  to  the 
Gypsum  filled  board  at  (D). 

This  type  of  installation  adds  nothing  to  the  fire  risk  in  an  old  building,  of  non- 
fireproof  construction,  and  is  to  be  recommended  as  an  economical  means  of  modernizing 
an  old  structure  for  continued  use.  The  writer  has  taken  several  old  buildings,  where 
funds  were  limited,  supplying  this  type  of  construction  at  small  cost,  cleaning  up  the  old 
building,  freshening  the  foul  stagnant  air  until  the  odors  so  prevalent  in  old  buildings  were 
entirely  removed.  As  we  have  mentioned  here,  the  building  of  the  flues  only,  owing  to  the 
mechanical  apparatus  being  similar  to  that  in  new  buildings,  you  are  referred  to  Chapter 
Twenty-two  for  complete  illustration  and  explanation  of  the  Ventilating  System. 

The  two  cuts  on  page  13,  illustrate  a  building  at  Nevada,  Iowa  before  remodeling  and 
after.  Cut  No.  12  shows  the  building  before  remodeling,  when  the  building  was  used  as  a 
combined  High  and  Grade  school  and  Cut  No.  13  shows  the  building  after  remodeling  into  a 
grade  building  with  the  small  grade  addition,  remodeled  into  domestic  science  and  manual 
training  departments. 


16 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


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.    .-*» 

Chapter  Five 

Fire  Trap  Construction  and  Its  Menace 

TATISTICS  show  that  one  out  of  every  ten  school  buildings  burn  every  year,  some 
taking  toll  of  human  life,  but  fortunately  few  have  taken  such  fearful  toll  as  the 
Collingswood  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  where  273  children  and  teachers  were  burned, 

aspyxiated,  or  trampled  to 
death  in  panic  and  the  flames 
and  smoke  of  the  burning 
structure.  A  great  Provi- 
dence seems  to  have  pro- 
tected many  from  just  such 
a  holocaust,  as  numerous  in- 
stances are  on  record  where 
buildings  have  burned  short- 
ly after  large  crowds  of 
people  had  left  the  building, 
either  after  school  or  enter- 
tainments. We  illustrate 
one  of  these  (Figures  14,  15, 
16),  a  school  building  of 
Milaca,  Minnesota,  where 
at  10:30  P.  M.  one  night  a 
large  crowd  having  attend- 
ed a  class  play  quietly 
passed  from  the  assembly 
room  on  the  second  floor  down  open,  unprotected  wood  stairways  to  the  exits  and  out. 
Within  one-half  hour  after,  the  building  was  one  mass  of  flames  and  two  hours  later,  ruins. 
Fire  was  presumed  to  start  in  the  basement  and  it  spread  so  quickly  that  it  was  impossible 
to  save  anything  from  the  building.  With  smoke  and  flames  spreading  rapidly,  what 
chance  would  a  packed  crowd  in  a  second  floor  assembly  have  had,  when  the  open  corridors 
would  have  been  filled  with  smoke  before  they  could  have  possibly  gotten  away?  I  am 
afraid  their  chances  would  be  very  small  and  yet  there  are  thousands  of  just  such  school 

buildings  all  over  the  coun- 
try with  little  or  no  provi- 
sion made  for  escape  from 
fire,  and  such  as  have  been 
provided  are  of  little  prac- 
tical use.  Some  states  have 
laws  and  regulations  which 
require  fire  escapes,  and  a 
certain  number  of  exits  of  a 
given  width  for  a  specified 
number  of  pupils.  Some 
have  requirements  that 
doors  be  made  to  open  out 
and  be  provided  with  a  lock 
which  will  open  the  door 
when  pressure  is  exerted  a- 
gainst  a  bar  which  crosses 
the  door,  28"  to  32"  above 
Fig.  is  the  floor,  these  are  called 


Fig.  14 


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PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


17 


Fig.  16 


fire  exit  locks.  All  old 
buildings  regardless  of  ex- 
pense should  be  fitted  with 
ample  exits  supplied  with 
these  fire  exit  locks  and 
where  old  buildings  were 
built  with  few  exits,  ample 
fire  escapes  should  be  ad- 
ded. Special  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  see  that 
no  open  stair  fire  escape 
is  erected  which  cross  win- 
dows of  the  floor  or  floors 
below,  as  they  become  fire- 
traps  if  used  when  fire  breaks 
out  through  lower  windows, 
cutting  off  the  escape.  Be 
sure  they  are  built  on  a 
blank  wall.  The  best  possible  escape  is  an  inclosed  stairway  opening  to  the  building  with 
metal  doors  whose  panels  may  be  filled  with  wired  glass  if  light  is  desired.  The  inclosed 
stair  should  be  of  fireproof  construction  and  doors  to  buildings  should  be  kept  closed  at  all 
times  with  high  grade  door  checks  to  prevent  smoke  from  lower  corridors  entering  stair 
well.  Add  such  a  stairway  to  your  old  building  and  you  need  have  little  fear  of  fire.  As  a 
guide  to  the  width  and  number  of  stairways  and  fire  exits  the  following  is  quoted  from  the 
Chicago  Building  Ordinance,  which  will  be  found  good  practice  anywhere. 

"497.  STAIRWAYS— WIDTH  OF.  (a)  Stairways  in  buildings  used  for  the  purpose 
of  Class  VIII  (School  Buildings)  shall  be  equivalent  in  width  to  fifteen  inches  for  every 
hundred  of  seating  capacity  in  such  building  as  measured  by  the  aggregate  seating  capacity 
of  the  auditorium,  assembly  rooms  and  school  rooms;  provided,  however,  that  the  number 
of  persons  allowed  in  such  buildings  at  any  one  time  shall  be  limited  by  the  width  of  stair- 
ways available  as  exits  therefrom. 

(b)  No  stairway  shall  be  less  than  five  feet  in  the  clear,  except  where  more  than 
two  stairways  lead  down  from  any  floor,  in  which  case  stairways  four  feet  in  width  in  the 
clear  may  be  counted  in  the  total  width  of  stairs  required. 

(c)  Where  two  or  more  stairways  are  used,  they  shall  be  placed  at  opposite  ends  of 
the  building  or  as  far  apart  as  practicable,  and  all  such  buildings  hereafter  erected  shall 
have  at  least  two  separate  and  distinct  stairways  from  the  ground  floor  to  the  top 
floor,  and  all  existing  buildings  shall  have  two  such  separate  and  distinct  stairways,  or  one 
stairway  and  one  sliding  or  stairway  fire  escape. 

(d)  All  stairways  shall  have  railings  on  each  side  thereof.  No  stairway  shall  ascend 
a  greater  height  than  thirteen  feet  six  inches  without  a  level  landing,  the  dimensions  of 
which,  in  the  direction  of  the  run  of  the  stairs,  shall  be  not  less  than  four  feet,  or  which, 
if  at  a  turn  of  the  stairs  shall  be  of  not  less  width  than  the  width  of  the  stairs.  No  window 
shall  be  permitted  in  any  stairs.  Stairways  which  are  over  nine  feet  wide  shall  have  double 
intermediate  handrails  with  end  newel  posts  at  least  five  and  one-half  feet  high.  All 
stairways  shall  discharge  at  the  bottom  directly  to  a  public  thoroughfare  or  open  ground. 

498.  STAIRWAYS  IN  BUILDINGS  HEREAFTER  ERECTED— FIREPROOF. 

In  buildings  hereafter  erected  more  than  two  stories  and  basement  in  height,  the  stairways 
and  their  enclosing  walls  shall  be  of  fireproof  construction. 

499.  WIDTH  OF  CORRIDORS,  PASSAGEWAYS,  HALLWAYS  AND  DOOR- 
WAYS. The  width  of  corridors,  passageways,  hallways  and  doorways  shall  be  equivalent 
in  width  to  eighteen  inches  for  every  one  hundred  of  seating  capacity  of  such  portions  of 
building  as  will  be  required  to  use  same  for  exit.  No  corridor,  passageway  or  hallway 
shall  be  less  than  five  feet  in  width,  and  no  doorway  less  than  three  feet  in  width  except 
where  two  or  more  doors,  each  two  feet  eight  inches  or  more  in  width,  are  grouped  together. 


18 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


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Fig.  18 


500.  DOORS  TO  OPEN  OUTWARD— COVERING  OF.  All  doors  in  such 
buildings  shall  open  outward,  and  all  entrance  and  exit  doors  shall  be  unlocked  at  all 
times  when  the  building  is  occupied  for  school  purposes,  or  open  to  the  public." 

After  you  have  read 
the  above,  go  and  investi- 
gate the  conditions  of  your 
old  building,  weigh  every 
possibility  there  and  remedy 
the  defects,  do  not  wait  un- 
til it  is  too  late. 

Fires  are  usually  start- 
ed in  the  fuel  room  of  the 
average  school,  or  around 
the  boiler  room  somewhere 
(Figures  18-19  and  20  show 
a  building  which  caught 
from  an  overheated  furnace 
firing  the  soot  in  smoke 
flue) ,  so  it  is  well  to  shut  off 
this  part  of  the  building 
with  metal  doors  kept  closed 
with  door  checks  from  the 
rest  of  the  building  and  the 
doors  to  coal  bins  if  possible, 
should  be  fire  underwriters 
metal  doors  sliding  on  tracks 
that  will  close  automatically 
by  the  heat  melting  or  burn- 
ing fusible  links  that  hold 
the  door  open. 

Chimneys  should  be 
built  with  every  precaution. 
No  flue  should  be  built  with- 
out a  flue  lining,  and  old 
flues  should  be  examined 
where  they  pass  through 
floors  to  see  that  they  are 
tight.  Settling  in  old  build- 
ings of  wood  construction 
or  wood  floor  joists  often 
break  a  chimney  apart  at 
the  floor  line,  opening  up 
cracks  that  become  danger- 
ous, especially  if  the  fram- 
ing of  the  floor  joists  is  tight 
against  the  chimney. 

Investigate  the  air  in- 
take of  your  fan  if  you 
have  one  in  your  old  school 
building,  many  fans  have 
been  installed,  with  no  di- 
rect connection  to  the  out- 
side opening,  in  a  room  often 
adjoining  the  boiler  room, 
with  an  open  intake,  and 
in  two  instances  the  writer 

Fig.  20 


Fig.  19 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


19 


found  these  rooms  being 
used  by  the  janitor  for  stor- 
age purposes,  one  of  them 
had  a  waste  paper  chute 
from  the  floors  above  open- 
ing into  it  and  by  some 
means  the  waste  paper  piled 
in  one  corner  of  the  room 
(fortunately  against  brick 
walls)  caught  fire,  filling  the 
building  in  ten  minutes  full 
of  smoke  through  the  fan 
intake  and  the  ducts.  For- 
tunately this  happened  dur- 
ing recess  period  and  no 
damage  was  done,  still  a 
panic  might  have  resulted 
as  there  were  no  fire  escapes 
on  this  building  and  only 
two  narrow  stairways  in  a 
school  that  accommodated 
four  hundred  pupils. 

There  are  many  buildings 
a  daily  menace  to  the  pupils 
and  teachers  and  no  amount 
of  proficiency  in  fire  drill 
could  overcome  some  of  the 
existing  conditions,  and  to 
those  who  are  in  authority 
over  the  schools  I  would 
say,  investigate  carefully, 
do  not  let  ignorance  of  con- 
ditions cause  you  to  neglect 
necessary  precautions. 


Dynamiting'the  Ruins.    Pipestone,  Minn.,  School.    Destroyed  by  Fire. 


20 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Six 

The  Essentials  of  School  Architecture 

THE  definition  of  the  word  "Architecture"  has  a  two-fold  meaning:  First,  that  of 
building  well,  for  convenience,  strength  of  materials,  stability  of  structure;  second, 
designing  as  an  art,  so  to  arrange  plan,  elevation  and  detail  as  to  impart  interest 
with  beauty  of  detail,  grandeur  of  mass,  unity  of  parts,  and  a  blending  of  all  so  that 
strength  and  power  is  evident  in  the  completed  whole. 

The  foregoing  applies  to  any  and  all  examples  of  Architecture,  yet,  each  different 
type  of  building  has  some  attributes  not  found  in  others  and  the  Architect  who  designs  a 
bank  must  know  the  departments  of  a  banking  system  to  properly  design  a  bank  and 
arrange  its  floor  space;  of  a  hospital  he  must  know  the  minute  details  of  room,  ward,  diet 
kitchen,  sterilizing,  anesthetizing  and  operating  departments,  etc.;  likewise  when  planning 
a  school  the  Architect  must  know  the  essentials  of  school  architecture,  and  there  is  perhaps 
no  other  class  of  buildings  which  requires  so  much  intelligent  and  careful  planning  and 
arrangement  as  a  school  building;  upon  it  depends  the  health  and  efficiency  of  the  pupils 
to  a  large  extent.  Also  the  economical,  efficient  operation  of  the  school  as  a  whole.  The 
following  brief  outline  of  requirements  may  rightly  be  classed  among  the  essentials  of 
school  architecture. 

First: 

The  Site.  This  should  always  be  on  a  high,  dry  location,  and  of  ample  size  to  furnish 
adequate  play  ground  space.    See  Chapter  26. 

Second: 
Perfect  drainage  and  sewerage. 

Third: 
A  dry,  light  basement,  no  damp  walls  or  floors. 

Fourth: 

Ample  exits,  conveniently  arranged  to  street,  play  grounds  and  athletic  field.  Sepa- 
rate exits  should  be  made  in  all  cases  to  the  Gymnasium. 

Fifth: 

Wide,  light  corridors,  conven- 
iently connecting  all  rooms  through- 
out the  building.  Arrange  your  plan 
so  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  pass 
through  one  room  to  another. 

Sixth: 

Wide,  easy  stairways  provided 
with  handrails,  permitting  two  chil- 
dren to  walk  abreast.  Stairs  to  be 
erected  at  opposite  sides  or  ends  of 
the  building.  Inclose  them  if  possible 
Fig.  21  and  use  as  fire  escapes. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 21 

Seventh: 

Well  lighted  rooms,  20%  of  the  floor  area  should  be  the  minimum  glass  area,  and  this 
should  be  from  the  left  side,  or  from  skylights.  Daylight  should  be  augmented  by  artifical 
light  on  dark  days.  This  should  be  diffused  equally  over  the  room  eliminating  glare  and 
shadows.    Compare  figures  2,  Chapter  One,  and  21  shown  on  page  19. 

Eighth: 

Ventilation  should  be  carefully  planned  to  furnish  at  least  thirty  cubic  feet  of  air  to 
each  person  per  minute,  kept  in  constant  motion,  equally  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the 
various  rooms,  and  supplied  with  proper  humidity  under  automatic  control. 

Ninth: 

Drinking  fountains  and  toilet  facilities  should  be  placed  on  each  floor  for  both  sexes, 
to  eliminate  stair  travel.  In  Kindergarten  and  small  grades,  individual  toilets  adjacent  to 
the  room  are  a  great  convenience,  but  cannot  be  recommended  for  pupils  who  have  grown 
to  the  age  where  the  close  proximity  of  the  toilet  to  the  room  in  which  they  study,  the  noise 
of  the  toilet  operating,  together  with  the  knowledge  of  all  pupils  in  the  room  that  they  are 
going  to  a  toilet  room,  might  lead  to  the  pupils  embarrassment,  and  where  the  necessity  for 
its  continued  use  might  lead  to  the  blunting  of  the  innate  modesty  of  the  pupil,  or  where 
excessive  modesty  might  cause  the  pupil  to  refrain  from  the  toilets  use  causing  physical 
discomfort  and  positive  harm  to  the  system. 

Tenth: 

A  quiet  building  should  be  provided  by  using  every  sound  deadening  material  avail- 
able in  walls,  floors,  floor  coverings  and  ceilings.  A  building  should  be  so  planned  as  to 
eliminate  all  possible  distractions.  Arrangement  of  rooms,  doors,  corridors,  etc.,  should 
be  made  with  this  in  view.  Doors  should  open  at  rear  of  room  rather  than  in  front,  cor- 
ridor doors,  if  of  glass  should  be  ribbed  or  figured  glass,  so  passing  back  and  forth  through 
corridors  will  not  attract  pupils  attention,  likewise  the  lower  half  of  ground  floor  windows 
should  be  ribbed  or  figured  glass  so  moving  objects  outside  will  not  annoy.  Hard  or 
resonant  floor  surfaces,  creating  noise,  annoy  likewise  and  should  be  avoided.  Over- 
speeded  fans  and  metallic  ducts  distribute  noises  that  irritate  and  must  be  avoided.  In  fact 
the  essentials  of  School  Architecture  demands  that  the  Architect  know  and  overcome  all 
troubles  that  affect  the  mind,  will  and  nervous  systems  of  the  school  population,  according 
to  the  various  ages  of  the  students,  so  far  as  any  combination  of  materials,  plan  and  design 
can  accomplish  this,  thereby  lending  his  valuable  aid  to  increased  efficiency.  Elimination 
of  distractions,  permits  concentration,  and  concentraction  is  one-half  of  efficiency. 

Eleventh: 

Upon  the  Architect's  intimate  knowledge  of  every  changing  school  condition,  from 
the  teachers  or  superintendent's  standpoint,  depends  the  proper  arrangement  of  a  school, 
and  upon  the  proper  arrangement  depends  the  ease  and  economy  of  operation.  The  school 
program  should  be  carefully  studied  and  departments  placed  to  permit  of  easy  access  with 
a  minimum  of  traveling  through  corridors  or  on  stairways.  A  thorough  knowledge  as  above 
will  also  acquaint  the  Architect  with  a  full  knowledge  of  the  equipment  needed,  and  to  plan 
intelligently  this  is  absolutely  essential. 

Twelfth: 

As  the  office  building  in  the  city  is  planned  with  light  movable  plastered  partitions 
built  of  light  tile,  so  they  can  be  torn  down  and  rebuilt  easily  without  injury  to  the  build- 
ing, thus  permitting  enlargement  and  rearrangement  of  offices  for  convenience  of  tenants, 
so  in  like  manner  a  school  building  should  be  so  built  that  rearrangement  of  departments, 
and  enlargement  of  rooms  can  be  accomplished  without  damage  to  the  building  or  without 


22 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


excessive  cost.  This  applies  especially  to  the  larger  fire-proof  permanently  built  struc- 
tures and  it  is  very  essential  that  the  Architect  so  plan  and  design  the  structure  with  this 
in  view. 

Finally,  while  there  are  many  other  items,  such  as  the  designing,  planning  for  econom- 
ical, efficient  construction,  specification  for  materials  and  finish,  yet  in  the  main  the  above 
are  the  main  essentials  of  school  architecture  and  a  careful  study  of  the  problem  should  be 
made  before  an  Architect  is  selected,  and  only  those  who  can  qualify  as  having  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  Heating,  Ventilating,  Sanitation,  Lighting  and  Equipment  should  be  con- 
sidered. 


Modern  two-story  type  of  school  building  with  no  basement.       Entrance  to  Gymnasium  and  Auditorium  both  on  the  grade 

level.      G.  L.  Lockhart,  Architect. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


23 


Chapter  Seven 

The  Fireproof  Construction  of  a  Building 

State  departments  all  over  the  country  have  passed  laws  and  made  regulations 
covering  light,  arrangement,  number  and  kind  of  stairways,  fire  escapes,  exits  and  the  like, 
also  controlling  in  a  measure  the  sanitation,  heating  and  ventilation,  except  in  rare  in- 
stances, however,  almost  no  regulation  has  been  made  as  to  the  construction  of  the  build- 
ing. Consequently  buildings  of  good,  bad  and  indifferent  construction  may  be  found  all 
over  the  country,  due  largely  to  the  inadequate  appropriation  of  funds  for  building  purpo- 
ses. Too  often  a  school  board  will  inspect  some  building  erected  two  or  three  years,  find 
what  it  cost,  then  vote  a  like  sum  for  their  building.  Then  as  plans  are  prepared  they  find 
the  building  must  be  larger  than  the  building  they  had  seen,  totally  overlooking  the  rise 
in  cost  of  materials  and  labor,  hence  it  becomes  necessary  to  provide  additional  funds  or 
trim  the  building,  and  it  is  usually  trimmed.  Quite  often  an  architect  is  selected  whose 
limited  experience  in  the  planning  of  schools,  provides  an  expensive  building,  without 
adequate  results  for  the  money  expended.  When  the  bids  are  in,  unwise  cuts  are  made  to 
the  detriment  of  the  school,  and  in  almost  every  instance,  the  first  alternate  is  to  cut  out 
the  fireproof  construction,  and  it  is  usually  done,  but  to  all  who  are  building  a  large  school 
building  we  urge,  don't  do  it.  The  fireproof  construction  has  a  larger  meaning  than  pro- 
tection alone  from  fire.  The  permanency  of  the  structure,  elimination  of  shrinkage  and 
cracks,  threefold  reduction  in  repair  bills,  elimination  of  objectionable  noise  and  the  fact 
that  it  is  much  warmer  and  easily  kept  so,  all  add  weight  to  the  argument  for  fireproof 
construction,  and  last  but  not  least,  the  comparative  safety  from  conflagration  should 
convince  any  school  board  of  the  need  of  fireproof  buildings,  erected  for  safety  and  per- 
manency. 

The  word  fireproof  has  a 
relative  meaning  and  should 
not  be  taken  literally  as  that 
would  mean  a  building  erect- 
ed wholely  of  non-combusti- 
ble materials  with  equip- 
ment of  a  similar  nature  but 
should  be  taken  to  mean, 
a  building  erected  of  non- 
combustible  walls,  floor  con- 
struction, ceilings  and  parti- 
tions, with  boiler  and  fuel 
rooms  isolated  from  the  rest 
of  the  building,  with  solid 
concrete  or  brick  walls  inter- 
vening and  all  openings  to 
same  enclosed  with  Fire  Underwriters  Metal  Doors,  and  metal  windows  with  wire  glass. 
The  exposed  outside  walls  of  the  building,  if  adjoining  other  buildings  which  might  create 
a  fire  menace  should  also  have  all  openings  enclosed  with  metal  frames  and  wire  glass. 
Inside  finish,  floors,  doors  and  equipment  may  be  of  wood.  A  building  so  erected  is  fire- 
proof in  the  sense  that  it  will  not  burn  down  and  it  affords  absolute  safety  to  the  students 
as  no  matter  where  a  fire  should  start  the  smoke  would  be  unable  to  penetrate  through  the 
building  if  properly  planned  with  door  checks  on  every  door  to  keep  them  closed  at  all 
times  and  no  transoms.  (Transoms  are  not  needed  where  a  proper  ventilating  system  is 
installed),  as  an  illustration  of  this,  a  school  building  built  with  concrete  and  tile  floors 
with  gypsum  tile  partitions  in  one  of  the  Country  Consolidated  School  buildings  caught 
fire  in  the  manual  training  bench  room  where  a  large  quantity  of  shavings  had  been  piled 


Fig.  22 


24 


PUBLIC        SCHO  0  L  S 


in  one  corner.  The  windows  in  this  room  faced  an  open  field  and  the  fire  was  not  dis- 
covered until  morning  when  the  janitor  arrived  at  the  building.  The  fire  had  burned 
itself  out,  by  that  time  having  burned  the  benches  and  materials  in  the  room,  broken  out 
the  windows,  charring  the  frames  and  burning  out  the  mullions.  Also  burning  out  the 
door  to  the  corridor  causing  at  least  one-third  of  the  plaster  to  fall,  but  owing  to  the  tile 
partitions  and  concrete  floor  system  the  entire  fire  was  confined  to  the  one  room.  School 
continued  without  delay  and  thousands  of  dollars  was  saved  to  the  taxpayers  because  of 
the  construction  of  the  building. 

Figure  22  shows  the 
skeleton  frame  of  a  fireproof 
building  erected  at  Nevada, 
Iowa,  where  a  combination 
of  reinforced  concrete  and 
steel  frame  construction  was 
used.  Concrete  being  used 
for  the  short  spans  and  steel 
over  the  long  spans.  Note 
the  two  columns  at  the  cor- 
ner in  the  foreground,  then 
note  the  view  of  corner,  Fig- 
ure 23.  The  chimney  is  built 
in  this  corner  105  feet  tall 
and  does  not  show  at  the 
corner  until  above  the  roof. 


Fig.  23 


B8 
BE 

B§ 
Bfl 


15"  Wall 


Fig.  24 


Fig.  25 


The  chimney  is  round  inside  to  facilitate  draft  and  is  built  up  for  20  feet  above  the  boiler 
breeching  with  fire  brick.  Note  closely  in  Figure  23  how  the  windows  fit  under  concrete 
beams.  The  outside  walls  carry  nothing  more  than  their  own  weight  and  are  built  of 
4-inch  brick  facing  and  8-inch  tile  backing,  as  indicated  by  detail  Figure  25,  the  brick 
being  bonded  to  the  tile  every  sixth  course  with  full  headers  as  shown,  or  by  clipped  headers. 
There  are  various  shapes  of  tile  backing  but  the  shapes  recommended  are  those  which  have 
a  non-continuous  nortar  joint  through  the  wall.  With  this  form  of  tile  (which  can  be  had 
from  several  sources),  frost  cannot  penetrate  the  wall  through  the  mortar  joints  and  a 
better  wall  results.  Figure  26  shows  the  method  of  laying  clay  tile  on  wood  forms  for  a 
light  and  satisfactory  method  of  long  or  short  span  reinforced  concrete  construction  in 
which  the  size  of  tile  is  changed  according  to  the  length  of  the  span  and  the  necessary 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


25 


depth  of   the  concrete   beam  between 
them.    Clay  tile  marked  63  in  Figure 
26  are  spaced  4  inches  apart  and  are 
12  inches  wide  thus  spacing  the  rein- 
forced concrete  beam  16  inches  center 
to  center.  The  tile  varies  in  depth  from 
4  inches  to  12  inches  and  are  economic- 
al to  use  for  spans  up  to  22  feet — above 
that  span  gypsum  tile  (Pyrobar)  be- 
comes more  economical  as  its  lighter 
weight  eliminates  surplus  concrete  and 
lightens  up  the  entire  building  without 
in  any  way  reducing  its  strength  or 
durability.    Figure  28  shows  a  typical 
school  building  construction  where  this 
material  was  used,  showing  the  tile  in 
place  on  the  wood  forms  ready  for  the 
placing  of  reinforcing  steel.    Some  bent 
steel  rods  for  beams  are  shown   on   the 
right  side  of  the  picture  with  some  elec- 
tric conduit  lying  in  front  of  it.    The  con- 
duit will  be  laid  in  place  before  any  con- 
crete is  poured  and  will  be  firmly  embed- 
ded in  the  concrete,  consequently  special 
precaution  must  be  taken  at  all  times  to 
accurately   locate   all  fixture  outlets   in 
place.     Figure  29  shows  the  underside  of 
the  same  floor  showing  rough  form  work 
in  place    with   tile  already  laid.      This 
is  the  underside   of   the  floor  shown   in 


Fig.  26 


Pyrobar    Floor  Tile. 

19" .     5"  „ 19" 


-     0 


Wn&K'wt'SToL-rt-Soocer-MvMz'^rt. 


Slit  of  fhar  Tic- 

A'DeptoctJtei 

6' 

e~ 

IO~ 

/2" 

B-fc&tcrn/e 

7" 

9' 

//" 

/3- 

Weiahfperf?. 

24/bs. 

27/is 

JO/bs. 

33/ii. 

Each  Tile  24' long. 
A//  rre/gMs  shown  are  per  lineal  ibof. 


Fig.  27 


Fig.  28 


26 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Fig.  29 

Figure  28.  When  the  wood  forms  have  remained  three  weeks  after  concrete  has  been 
poured,  giving  concrete  ample  time  to  set,  they  are  easily  removed  and  plaster  is  applied 
direct  to  the  under  surface  of  either  clay  or  gypsum  tile.  For  long  span  construction  there 
are  several  makes  of  steel  forms  which  fill  the  space  occupied  by  the  tile  illustrated,  Figure 
28 — these,  however,  are  open  at  the  bottom  and  wire  lath  has  to  be  applied  on  the  under 
side  of  the  forms  upon  which  to  plaster.  This  method  is  equally  as  good  as  the  systems 
illustrated  and,  if  they  can  be  secured  as  cheaply  as  the  tile,  may  be  used  just  as  satisfac- 
torily. For  short  spans,  flat  reinforced  concrete  slab  construction  may  be  used  satisfac- 
torily. In  fact  the  prime 
object  to  be  kept  in  view 
with  any  or  all  of  the  vari- 
ous types  of  reinforced  con- 
crete construction  is  to  see 
that  the  correct  percentage 
of  steel  to  concrete  is  always 
constant,  and  that  the  steel 
and  the  materials  compos- 
ing the  concrete  are  of  first 
quality,  properly  mixed,  well 
distributed  and  tamped  in 
place.  All  rods  must  be  an- 
chored in  proper  position 
with  concrete  well  worked 
in  around  them.  Concrete 
must  always  be  used  while 
fresh  and  no  partly  set  mix- 
ture should  be  allowed.  Use 
only  the  best  dry  powdered 
cement,  and  that  should  be 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


27 


given  laboratory  tests  before  using.  Reinforced  concrete  should  be  allowed  to  remain  in 
the  forms  for  21  days  before  removal  in  moderate  or  warm  weather  and  in  the  event  that 
concrete  is  poured  in  freezing  weather  forms  should  remain  until  all  concrete  has  had 
time  to  thaw  out  and  properly  set.  Do  not  be  in  too  much  of  a  hurry  to  complete 
this  part  of  your  work.  Most  of  the  failures  have  resulted  from  rushing  through  with 
construction,  building  additional  floors  over  green  concrete  until  the  overload  was 
more  than  forms  could  hold  up,  or  from  removing  forms  before  concrete  had  set 
properly,  or  from  removing  forms  from  under  frozen  concrete  which  had  frozen  before 
properly  setting  up  and  fell  through  after  thawing  out. 

Figure  30  shows  a  floor  panel  being  loaded  to  double  its  estimated  carrying  capacity 
as  a  test  of  its  strength.  Tests  like  this  give  a  sense  of  security  to  the  owner  and  should  be 
made  on  all  work.  The  floor  system  should  be  estimated  to  carry  at  least  four  times  the 
load  it  will  ever  be  called  upon  to  carry,  which  is  called  a  safety  factor  of  four,  and  a  test 
of  half  that  should  not  damage  the  floor  in  any  way. 

Many  school  buildings  are  being  erected  with  a  non-fireproof  roof,  see  Figure  24. 
This  is  quite  a  saving  in  cost  as  it  enables  the  contractor  to  utilize  the  wood  form  material 
for  roof  construction.  Where  this  is  done  the  beams  and  columns  supporting  the  roof 
construction  are  all  of  fireproof  construction  and  all  wall  partitions  are  fireproof  up  to  the 
ceiling  under  the  roof.  Few  fires  have  started  in  the  attic  space  of  such  a  building,  and 
the  danger  to  pupils  is  negligible  and  where  the  interest  on  the  investment  for  all  fireproof 
construction  naturally  exceeds  the  increased  insurance  rate,  school  boards  are  usually 
inclined  to  accept  the  saving,  and  where  a  building  appropriation  is  limited,  the  writer  has 
found  it  more  profitable  to  invest  the  difference  in  equipment.  On  the  building  illustrated, 
Figure  24,  the  difference  in  cost  of  the  roof  framing  between  the  wood  used  and  all  fireproof 
was  $2,100.  The  interest  on  this  sum  at  5%  is  $105,  while  the  insurance  rate  was  only 
increased  about  $47.  Thus  the  saving  was  quite  attractive  to  the  school  board,  and  was 
accepted. 

Where  the  fireproof  roof  is  used,  there  are  several  methods  that  are  very  satisfactory. 
One  is  to  build  the  ceiling  like  the  floors  below,  of  lighter  material,  however,  to  carry  the 
roof  and  snow  load  only,  then  building  up  the  slope  of  the  roof  with  the  wood  rafters  set 
on  plates,  with  wood  sheathing,  and  any  surface  desired.  This  is  allowable  by  the  insurance 
companies,  under  the  class  of  fireproof  construction,  and'allows  the  samejnsurance  rate. 


Fig.  31 

Figure  31  illustrates  a  gypsum  slab  roof  laid  on  steel  beams  and  Figure  32,  the  under 
side  of  the  slab.  The  gypsum  is  reinforced  with  wire  mesh  and  being  a  light  material, 
provides  an  economical  roof  construction  which  may  be  covered  with  any  desired  surface. 
For  schools,  any  of  the  built  up  roofs  or  five-ply  tar  and  gravel  furnishes  the  most  satisfac- 
tory covering.  A  roof  will  last  no  longer  than  the  flashings,  without  leakage,  consequently, 
particular  care  should  be  exercised  to  have  flashings  of  best  quality,  properly  applied. 

Partitions  should  be  erected  of  light  partitions,  either  gypsum  tile  or  hollow  clay  tile, 
Figure  33  illustrates  the  gypsum  tile  in  course  of  erection.    The  clay  tile  comes  in  the  same 


28 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Fig.  32 

thickness  and  either  may  be  used,  as  there  are  arguments  in  favor  of  both  and  the  writer 

usually  leaves  it  optional  with  the  contractor  as  to  which  he  uses. 

Another  form  of  fireproof  partition 
is  illustrated  in  Figure  34,  where  light 
steel  studding  are  used,  covered  with  a 
plaster  board,  then  plastered.  Similar 
steel  studs  are  used  with  wire  lath  and 
plaster  to  a  great  extent;  however,  the 
one  which  can  be  erected  the  most 
economically  'is  generally  used,  as  they 
are  all  efficient.  Where  gypsum  or  clay 
tile  are  used  the  false  frames  or  "bucks," 
for  window  or  door  openings  are  usually 
made  similar  to  Figure  35.  The  section 
showing  steel  channel  is  used  where  par- 
titions are  high  to  stiffen  the  opening,  as 
the  channel  runs  up  to  the  ceiling  while 
the  wood  frame  runs  only  to  the  top  of 
the  opening.  Partitions  are  seldom  high 
enough  to  require  this  extra  stiffening 
around  openings  and  the  steel  channels 
are  seldom  used.  Figure  36  shows  the 
method  adopted  where  an  all  fireproof 
metal  trim  is  used  throughout  the  build- 
ing. The  wood  brick  is  similar  to  those 
used  in  other  instances,  and  all  wood  is 
entirely   covered  and   protected  by  the 


Fig.  33 


metal.  The  numerous  different  methods  of  handling  construction  need  not  be  men- 
tioned here  as  each  Architect  has  methods  which  he  prefers  or  has  found  best  adapted 
to  his  work  or  the  locality  in  which  he  is  building. 

The  illustrations  so  far  are  all  of  a  type  of  building  where  the  total  weight  of  the 
structure  is  carried  on  columns  and  beams,  this  method  has  proved  itself  to  be  the  most 
satisfactory  and  most  economical  in  the  majority  of  recent  buildings  where  a  building  of 
three  story  or  more  in  height  is  erected.  Some  Architects  still  adhere  to  the  old  type  of 
construction  where  the  outside  walls  and  all  inside  bearing  partitions  are  of  solid  brick  or 
thick  heavy  walls  of  hollow  tile.  This  may  in  some  instances,  be  the  more  economical. 
For  many  reasons  elsewhere  mentioned,  the  one  story  type  of  school  or  the  two  story  type 
with  the  first  floor  just  above  grade  with  no  basement  is  becoming  popular  and  is  being 
generally  adopted  all  over  the  country.  These  types  eliminate  much  of  the  column  and 
beam  construction,  the  floor  and  roof  loads  are  carried  on  bearing  walls  in  the  usual  manner 
and  the  problems  of  construction  become  much  simplified,  permitting  the  use  of  skylighting 
in  the  one  story  buildings  as  illustrated  in  Figure  20,  eliminating  stairways  and  other 
inconveniences.  But  whether  the  building  be  one  or  more  stories  in  height,  too  much 
cannot  be  said  for  its  being  of  fireproof  materials.    As  stated  in  the  first  of  chapter  5  one 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


29 


out  of  ten  schools  burns  every  year,  this  with  its  resultant  loss  of  life  and  property,  together 
with  the  disarrangement  of  the  school  makes  the  problem  of  teaching  a  difficult  one  for  at 
least  a  year;  furthermore  the  comparison  between  wood  construction  at  its  best  and 
fireproof  is  very  marked.  The  one  can  be  only  a  temporary  structure  while  the  other  has 
stability,  permanency,  and  a  freedom  from  repair  bills,  that  makes  all  arguments  against 


Fig.  34 


Section  of  Door  Jamb  shcmina  Wood  Buck  Reinforced 
with  Steel  Channel 


Section  of  Door  Jamb  shomna  RabbeHed   Buck 


Note-  This  Buck  may  be  either  Plain  or  Robbetted 

Fig.  35 


AbiTff> 

Wood  door  buck 
may  b*  tiftut 
plain  or  rabbattwt 


titfai   #rchitra*w 


Fig.  36 


30 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

it  void,  and  while  first  cost  may  run  5%  to  15%  more  according  to  locality,  yet  it  is 
soon  overcome  by  the  small  expenditures  for  upkeep.  Europe  has  examples  of  buildings 
which  have  stood  for  hundreds  of  years,  and  if  unmolested  should  stand  for  as  many  more, 
and  while  some  arguments  are  brought  forth  that  we  do  not  want  permanent  structures 
owing  to  changing  conditions  and  improvements  in  the  schools,  yet  the  fact  that  we  can 
change  partitions  easily,  in  our  newer  methods  of  construction  without  much  expenditure, 
overcomes  any  argument  that  might  be  made  on  this  account.  The  history  of  every  new 
country  has  shown  that  the  pioneer  goes  to  the  wilderness  and  builds  his  log  hut,  stores  are 
erected  of  the  flimsiest  material,  towns  are  built  and  fire  comes  sweeping  all  before  it. 
Then  as  new  structures  take  their  place,  some  are  of  brick,  but  many  again  are  frame. 
Then  more  fires  and  more  experience  and  permanent  brick  or  stone  structures  are  erected, 
with  floors  and  partitions  still  inflammable,  dangerous  from  within  but  with  a  certain 
measure  of  protection  from  adjoining  structures;  and  finally  we  see  great  masses  of  fire- 
proof buildings  safe  from  within,  and  usually  from  without.  However,  there  is  always  a 
danger  from  without  in  congested  districts  where  a  fireproof  building  is  erected  adjoining 
some  old  firetrap. 

This  country  is  in  all  stages  of  construction  and  as  buildings  are  erected  we  should 
profit  by  the  experience  of  the  generations  before  us  and  build  for  the  future  with  the  best 
of  the  knowledge  we  have  at  hand. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


31 


Chapter  Eight 


_S  — I,-   ».r«- 


PlAN 


The  Specifications,  Problems  of  Materials,  Freight  Rates,  Etc. 

A  school  board  from  Tennessee,  made  an  extended  trip  inspecting  new  buildings 
with  a  view  to  educating  themselves  before  entering  into  a  school  building  campaign,  and 
while  visiting  schools  they  made  numerous  notes,  each  one  making  memoranda  of  the 
things  interesting  to  himself.  They  selected  an  Architect  from  the  North  whose  buildings 
appealed  to  them  and  he  was  instructed  to  prepare  plans  for  the  type  of  building  they 
wanted.  From  their  numerous  notes  they  mentioned  many  of  the  things  they  found 
interesting  about  the  build- 
ings they  had  seen  and  he 
was  instructed  to  include 
them.  This  Architect,  with- 
out making  himself  familiar 
with  their  local  conditions, 
wrote  the  specifications  as  in- 
structed, with  the  result  that 
bids  on  the  structure  exceeded 
their  estimate  almost  100%. 
The  building  was  trimmed 
down  and  a  second  attempt 
was  made  to  let  the  contract 
but  bids  again  were  75%  high. 
So  the  school  board  became 
disgusted  with  the  Architect 
they  had  employed  and  he  was 
paid  and  discharged.  A  second 
Architect  was  employed  with 
the  hope  that  better  results 
might  be  obtained,  and  this 
man  with  due  regard  to  the 
suggestion  made  by  the  school 
board,  decided  to  use  his  own 
judgment,  and  in  consequence 
an  entirely  different  design  of 
building  was  erected.  Archi- 
tect No.  1  had  specified  hol- 
low tile  for  the  walls  and  this 
product,  while  very  popular 
in  the  North,  was  not  availa- 
ble in  Tennessee.  Local  brick 
being  much  cheaper,  Architect 
No.  2  specified  brick.  Hollow 
tile  would  have  to  be  shipped 
from  Indiana,  over  the  Ohio 
river  which  meant  bridge  tolls 
in  addition  to  freight  rates. 

Architect  No.  1  specified  storm  sash  on  his  windows,  an  item  of  necessity  in  the 
North.  Architect  No.  2  found  they  were  seldom  or  never  needed,  so  omitted  them  from 
specifications  and  a  less  expensive  frame  detailed  for  the  windows.  Architect  No.  1 
specified  concrete  for  his  walls  and  footings  which  ran  $6.50  a  cubic  yard,  while  random 
rubble  stone  could  have  been  used  to  grade  line  at  $3.50  and  coursed  rubble  or  ashlar 


Proper  planning  of  the  building  depends  largely  on  the  local  conditions. 
The  plan  of  building  here  illustrated  was  made  necessary  owing  to  the  budd- 
ing site  being  a  sloping  hillside,  in  consequence,  you  will  note  two  entrances 
on  the  sub-basement  plan  which  open  to  the  west  on  the  grade  line.  Note 
the  basement  plan  with  two  main  entrances  on  the  upper  grade  line  to  the 
East.    A  rise  in  grade  of  ll'O"  in  the  62'0"  width  of  the  building. 


The  heavy  black  lines  between  corridor  and  Domestic  Science  Depart- 
ment is  2'0"  in  depth  and  indicates  the  space  reserved  for  ventilation  ducts. 
Note  the  stage  at  end  of  gymnasium  for  use  of  this  room  as  assembly  or  au- 
ditorium. 


32 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


above  that  for  $5.    Architect  No.  2  specified  stone.    In  the  North,  stone  would  have  cost 
more  than  concrete. 

*  Architect  No.  1  placed  his  footings  5'-0"  below  grade  line,  a  necessity  in  the  North, 
owing^to  frost.  This  was  3'-0"  more  than  was  needed  in  Tennessee.  Architect  No.  2 
placedjhem  2'-0"  below  grade.    I  might  continue,  but  suffice  to  say  that  No.  2  let  the 

contract  without  difficulty. 
The  moral  is,  study  your 
local  conditions,  use  that 
material  which  will  give  the 
most  economical  results, 
when  there  is  no  particular 
preference  between  them. 
Architects  are  prone  to  lazi- 
ness in  the  writing  of  speci- 
fications and  too  often  copy 
one  specification  from  some 
other  one,  with  little  or  no 
regard  to  the  specific  needs 
of  the  locality  in  which  they 
build.  The  difference  in 
cost  on  specific  items  may 
be  only  a  few  cents  or  a 
few  dollars  per  foot  or 
yard,  yet  a  combination  of 
expensive  materials  soon 
boosts  the  price  of  a  build- 
ing to  the  prohibitive 
amount.  Alternate  figures 
should  be  taken  on  materi- 
als about  which  there  is 
doubt  (especially  if  there  is 
an  equality  in  value)  and 
the  school  board  can  then 
have  their  choice  of  ma- 
terials. Specifications  can 
be  written  for  both  without 
much  difficulty.  Freight 
rates  enter  largely  into  the 
cost  and  should  be  careful- 
ly investigated  as  specifica- 
tions are  written,  and  local 
materials  should  be  consid- 
ered in  development  of  the 
building,  and  the  Architect  who  can  design,  and  design  well,  using  the  materials  most 
readily  at  hand,  securing  pleasing  and  satisfactory  results  is  much  more  valuable  to  a 
school  board  than  the  man  who  specifies  regardless  of  conditions,  even  though  the  care- 
ful Architects'  commission  be  double  that  of  the  other. 


Tirst    Tiooc    Plan 

Note  that  all  rooms  are  given  east  and  west  light  entirely  along  one  side  ] 
of  the  room  with  cloak  rooms  also  well  lighted.  Toilet  rooms  and  stairs  at  1 
opposite  ends  of  the  building  with  enclosed  stairways  cut  off  from  halls  by  J 
wire  glass  and  metal  doors.     Note  superintendent's  office  in  center  of  build-  1 


ing,[convenient[to  eachlfloor. 


fcJ 


-  Seco/id    Floor.  PL.n/1  - 

This  floor  is  used  as  exclusive  high  school  with  the  exception  of  one  upper 
grade  room.  Ample  light  is  secured  for  high  school  study  room  by  use  of 
sky  lights.    This  building  erected  at  Lanesboro,  Minn. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


33 


Chapter  Nine 

Selecting  the  Finish,  Its  Completeness 

A  school  building  may  be  erected  of  strong  durable  materials,  of  lasting  qualities, 
and  at  the  same  time  not  be  pleasing,  either  in  design  or  finish.  A  bad  combination  of 
materials  or  a  poor  color  combination,  can  destroy  all  the  design  and  leave  a  very  dis- 
appointing result.  No  hard  or  fast  rule  as  to  design  can  be  given  here  as  this  is  the  province 
of  the  Architect  and  the  design  should  be  governed  according  to  plan,  location,  local 
materials,  etc.  However,  care  should  be  taken  that  all  finish  be  of  a  permanent  lasting 
nature.  Walls  should  be  faced  with  stucco  (on  brick  or  tile),  brick,  stone  or  terra  cotta, 
and  the  trim  should  be  of  some  combination  of  these  materials.  If  stucco  is  used  a  fine 
artistic  effect  can  be  had  by  using  a  white  Portland  cement  in  the  finishing  coat.    The 


Fig.  38 

Kenyon,  Minnesota,  High  and  Grade  School  Building. 

stucco  surface  may  be  finished  with  a  smooth  trowelled  surface,  or  by  a  rough  cast  where 
the  finishing  coat  is  thrown  on  before  the  previous  coat  has  thoroughly  dried  or  by  a  pebble 
dash,  where  small  particles  of  crushed  rock,  pebbles,  or  marble  chips,  are  thrown  on  the 
last  coat  before  it  is  set.  The  rocks,  pebbles  or  marble  chips  are  graded  in  size,  usually 
those  that  would  pass  through  a  \"  screen  and  be  retained  on  a  \"  screen.  A  marble  dash 
stucco  is  quite  attractive,  especially  where  colored  effects  are  desired  in  the  wall,  as  marble 
chips  from  black  to  pure  white  can  be  secured,  by  specification,  with  almost  any  color 
in  between. 

Brick,  "the  old  reliable,"  is  becoming  more  and  more  the  standard  of  building 
material  and  quite  recently  has  taken  on  wonderful  improvement  in  design.  Architects 
have  been  experimenting  with  brick  combinations,  and  the  results  are  quite  wonderful. 
Figures  have  been  designed  and  interesting  patterns  developed  in  the  brick  surfaces  until 
the  entire  trim  of  the  building  is  obtained  without  recourse  to  any  other  material,  and  by 


34 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


'  <>mm&M%!?gh~~+*£BB& 


Fig.  39 
Belmond,  Iowa,  High  Junior  and  Grade  School  Building. 


■  ■ 


Fig.  40 
Grundy  Center,  Iowa,  High  and  Grade  School  Building.— Detail  of  Main  Entrance. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 35 

careful  designing  a  very  interesting  treatment  can  be  secured  with  considerable  economy 
over  the  ordinary  combination  of  brick  and  stone.  The  Belmond,  Iowa  School  building 
here  illustrated,  Figure  39,  shows  an  inexpensive  type  of  building  where  all  of  the  trim 
throughout  was  brick.  The  entire  base  up  to  the  lower  window  sills  was  a  cream  tinted 
hydraulic  brick  in  three  projecting  courses,  each  twelve  inches  high,  projecting  one-half 
inch.  Above  the  lower  windows  a  4"  and  8"  header  and  soldier  course  formed  a  band 
entirely  around  the  building  and  a  similar  band  was  placed  above  the  windows.  Vertical 
courses  were  built  in  at  the  front  entrance  and  the  mass  of  the  central  feature  was  also 
of  the  same  brick.  The  body  brick  was  a  mat  surface  light  tan  color  with  the  first  story 
a  somewhat  darker  shade.  This  combination  cost  $3,500  less  than  the  same  amount  of 
stone  trimming  for  the  same  design.  This  example  is  illustrated  to  show  what  can  be 
done  with  a  very  small  expenditure.  As  this  book  is  dealing  with  the  moderate  cost 
school,  the  larger  and  more  expensive  buildings  are  not  illustrated  herein,  as  there  are 
several  books  which  do  illustrate  them  and  we  want  to  bring  out  the  best  in  design  with 
the  least  expenditure.  There  are  some  localities  where  stone  trim  is  economical,  especially 
where  quarries  and  factories  are  close,  so  by  judicious  use  of  cut  stone  and  brick,  or  in 
some  cases  all  stone,  using  a  thin  ashlar  bonded  to  the  tile  or  brick  backing,  a  rich  and 
interesting  treatment  can  be  secured.  See  Figure  40.  In  certain  portions  of  this  country 
terra  cotta  can  be  used  for  trim  without  unnecessary  expense  and  it  makes  one  of  the  most 
interesting  treatments  that  can  be  had.  Interesting  mouldings,  symbolical  figures,  statues 
and  elaborate  ornamentation  can  be  brought  out  with  less  cost  in  this  material  than  in  any 
other. 

The  interior  finish  should  be  of  a  nature  to  withstand  hard  usage.  Oak,  birch  or 
hard  pine  trim  has  proven  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  in  a  majority  of  cases.  Oak  the 
most  expensive,  pine,  cheapest. 

The  finish  for  rooms  should  be  of  materials  that  will  not  reflect  light.  Toilet  rooms 
should  have  a  hard  finish  for  walls,  floors,  stall  partitions  and  ceilings,  that  will  not  absorb 
odors  or  ammonia  fumes,  and  is  easily  washable. 

Gymnasiums  should  not  be  finished  with  hard,  unyielding  surfaces  around  walls 
near  the  floor.  A  wood  wainscot  7'-0"  high  that  will  spring  easily  when  hit  by  players 
overcomes  to  a  great  extent  the  hard  knocks  basket  ball  players  sometimes  get  in  gym 
work.  Many  gymnasiums  have  been  finished  with  a  high  brick  wainscot  with  projecting 
cap  three  to  four  feet  above  the  floor,  this  is  a  mistake  and  should  be  avoided.  Keep  out 
projecting  sharp  corners  throughout  the  building,  avoid  square  newel  posts  with  their 
square  projecting  caps.  Use  rounded  stair  railings  and  rounded  corners  throughout. 
Color  and  decoration  will  be  taken  up  later. 


36  PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Ten 

Sound  Deadening 


Twelve  well  known  school  superintendents  were  asked  these  questions: 

First.      "Do  you  consider  a  quiet  school  essential  to  study?" 

Second.     "What  noise  in  a  building  annoys  the  most?" 

Third.     "  In  what  manner  does  the  noise  in  a  building  affect  the  student  and  teacher?  " 

To  the  first  question  twelve  replies  unanimously  agreed  that  quiet  in  the  building 
was  essential  to  effective  work. 

To  the  second  question,  eight  replies  mentioned  the  noise  of  the  fan  in  operation.  All 
twelve  mentioned  the  noise  of  students  walking  about  the  halls  and  the  sound  of  recita- 
tions heard  through  partitions  from  one  room  to  another.  Five  mentioned  the  noise  of 
manual  training  machinery  in  operation,  as  being  very  objectionable.  Three  mentioned 
the  gymnasium  work  as  being  heard  quite  distinctly  from  recitation  rooms  two  floors 
above.  One  mentioned  the  noise  of  a  vacuum  cleaner  in  operation  as  causing  annoyance, 
explaining  that  a  fourth  grade  teacher,  whose  room  was  on  the  floor  directly  above  the 
room  in  which  the  cleaner  was  located,  threatened  to  resign  if  some  means  were  not  taken 
to  eliminate  the  noise  of  the  cleaner  in  operation. 

Street  and  factory  noises  were  also  mentioned. 

One  superintendent  stated  that  while  noise  was  objectionable  to  a  certain  extent, 
yet  he  was  teaching  concentration  to  his  pupils,  and  that  he  believed  it  was  good  for  pupils 
to  learn  to  study  regardless  of  surroundings  and  that  they  should  become  accustomed  to 
all  noise  and  confusion  in  order  to  be  efficient  under  any  and  all  conditions. 

Piano  practice  and  elocution  practice  which  could  be  heard  distinctly  through  parti- 
tions, also  came  in  for  criticism.    Slamming  of  doors  was  mentioned  by  several. 

Answer  to  the  third  question  would  indicate  that  a  loss  of  efficiency  was  the  principal 
objection  to  noise  in  the  school  while  some  nervous  irritation  resulted. 

From  the  foregoing,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  superintendents  believe  noise  to  be 
objectionable,  there  being  but  one  plausible  excuse  for  a  noisy  building,  and  that  based 
on  a  theory  that  students  should  be  taught  to  concentrate,  regardless  of  noise,  and  while 
we  realize  the  absolute  need  of  concentration,  yet  we  believe  in  providing  every  facility  for 
accomplishing  this  with  the  minimum  of  effort  on  the  part  of  the  student,  as  a  student 
who  is  required  to  shut  out  of  mind  all  distractions  must  do  so  at  the  expense  of  will  power, 
and  few  students  (especially  those  in  the  primary  grades)  have  learned  to  concentrate 
their  will  to  the  necessary  extent. 

Consequently,  the  subject  of  sound  deadening  in  a  school  building  to  eliminate  noise 
is  a  vital  one  in  the  planning  of  the  building. 

Between  floors  a  serviceable  sound  deadener  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  "Linofelt," 
"Flaxlinum,"  "Fiberfelt"  or  other  makes  of  felt  strips.  These  are  placed  between  floors 
and  are  very  effective.  The  dead  air  space,  in  the  hollow  tile  filling  in  concrete  floor  beam 
construction  materially  aid  the  muffling  of  sound,  in  fact  many  school  buildings  are  built 
with  no  other  precaution  against  sound  travel  between  floors.  All  pipes  between  floors 
should  be  insulated  as  they  are  sound  conductors. 

Where  partitions  between  rooms  are  built  of  hollow  clay  or  Gypsum  tile  they  muffle 
sound  without  further  insulation,  but  transoms  over  doors  in  partitions  should  be  omitted 
and  if  too  much  sound  is  transmitted  through  the  door,  felt  strips  around  the  edges  will 
overcome  the  objection. 

A  noisy  fan  is  so  because  of  improper  installation  and  over  speeding.  A  fan  should 
always  be  set  on  a  2"  cork  foundation  and  should  never  be  connected  direct  to  a  metal 
duct,  as  the  fan  if  set  on  a  solid  concrete  base  and  connected  direct  to  a  metal  duct,  will 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


37 


MACHIHC  .&OLT.J 

Mujt  Not 
■PcrttT«ATt 
Cock.  Imsulatioi 


»  « 


9  ^op'poWrrtid  TlooR^LXir  .*■'*•.  "  ^ *„*'-""' 


•  Hqati  rw  •  ConGRtTt.-£iAOE  •  Oh  •  Cork.- 

•  MtTOD  Or  tLIMIMATIMG  MtRATIOH   Or  MACHIMtttY- 
•WHICH  <3tXs3  OM    riOOa  OF  RUlLDlMO,  .ALSO   FORM  IMG  • 

•  .^OUND    DeAPEMCR.' 

Fl4   4 J. 


transmit  all  sound  direct  to  the  room 
through  the  duct.  If  the  fan  is  set  on 
cork  the  vibrations  set  up  by  the  fan  in 
motion  are  taken  up  by  the  cork  and  if 
the  fan  is  connected  to  the  ducts  or  ple- 
num chamber  by  a  canvas  connection 
all  vibration  is  lost.  An  over-speeded  fan 
causes  a  rapid  movement  of  air  through 
the  ducts  creating  a  volume  of  sound 
through  the  movement  of  the  fan  blades 
that  can  be  heard  distinctly  in  every  room. 
The  trouble  is  in  the  use  of  too  small  a  fan. 
The  fan  should  be  sufficiently  large  to  run  at  a  moderate  speed  and  move  the  necessary 
volume  of  air  at  a  minimum  velocity  around  1,600  feet  per  minute.  With  these  precau- 
tions a  properly  oiled  and  well  balanced  fan  should  cause  no  annoyance. 

A  vacuum  cleaner  should  be  set  on  a  cork  base  and  should  have  its  exhaust  run  into 
a  muffling  chamber  or,  if  convenient,  it  may  be  run  into  the  base  of  the  smoke  flue.  Of 
necessity,  a  vacuum  cleaner  must  run  at  a  high  rate  of  speed,  in  consequence,  smooth 
running,  well  oiled,  nicely  adjusted  bearings  are  absolutely  essential  to  quiet  operation. 

In  small  buildings  or  country  schools  where  motive  power  is  secured  by  the  use  of 
gasoline  engines,  care  should  be  exercised  in  locating  these  in  a  remote  locality  in  the 
building  with  large  exhaust  run  entirely  outside  of  the  building  into  a  specially  prepared 
muffling  chamber,  and  where  other  machinery  is  run  by  these  engines  by  means  of  line 
shafting,  the  shafting  in  all  cases  should  be  set  on  piers  or  ran  in  tunnels  below  floors, 
where  all  vibration  can  be  transmitted  to  the  foundation. 

Shafting  should  never  be  hung  from  ceilings  as  this  permits  vibration  and  sound  to 
travel  throughout  the  building.  For  the  same  reason  manual  training  machinery  should 
always  be  set  on  concrete  foundation  over  a  cork  base  and  on  the  ground  floor,  kept  well 
oiled  with  smooth  running  bearings. 

It  is  perhaps  proper  to  state  here  that  efficient  janitor  service  and  a  capable  engineer 
are  absolutely  essential  to  quiet,  economical  operation  of  mechanical  equipment,  and  a 
school  board  can  much  better  afford  to  spend  more  in  the  janitor's  remuneration  than  in 
the  upkeep  of  the  plant,  which  invariably,  is  increased  in  direct  ratio  to  the  inefficiency 
of  the  janitor  or  engineer. 

Furthermore,  a  capable  engineer  or  janitor  takes  pride  in  the  quiet  operation  of  his 
machinery  and  a  quiet  school  plant  results. 

As  it  is  impossible  to  entirely  eliminate  the  noise  of  machinery  in  operation,  it  is 
essential  that  the  location  of  this  department  be  arranged  on  a  ground  floor  location  re- 
mote from  the  study  hall  and  class  rooms  with  door  edges  provided  with  felt  strips. 

The  gymnasium  should  have  a  ground  floor  location  and  be  closed  off  with  felt  pro- 
tected doors  with  no  open  transoms  and  connected  to  no  enclosed  courts  through  which 
the  sound  might  be  conveyed  upward  to  other  parts  of  the  building.  Where  study  halls 
are  located  directly  above  a  gymnasium  floor,  the  best  of  floor  deadening  quilt  should  be 
used  between  floor  and  gymnasium  ceiling,  no  matter  what  kind  of  a  floor  system  has 
been  used.  The  smaller  grade  children  of  a  combined  high  and  grade  school  (where  the 
high  school  assembly  was  directly  above  the  gymnasium)  used  the  gymnasium  for  a  play 
room  in  winter  and  on  rainy  days.  A  giant  stride  had  been  installed  in  this  building  and 
the  ceiling  joint  persisted  in  screeching  when  used.  Oil  was  used  copiously  but  without 
effect  and  the  annoyance  to  the  high  school  was  so  great  that  use  of  the  stride  was  pro- 
hibited as  its  being  attached  to  the  ceiling,  the  sound  was  more  noticeable  above  than  in 
the  gymnasium.  To  overcome  this,  a  new  ball  joint  was  secured  and  a  deadening  quilt 
laid  under  a  new  floor  and  the  annoyance  stopped. 

An  eastern  college  president  was  inspecting  plans  for  a  new  addition  to  his  school 
buildings  and  the  architect  asked:  "Where  shall  I  locate  the  music  room?"  The  eminent 
professor  replied:  "There  are  some  very  large  caves  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  Im- 
agine," said  he,  "a  lusty  voiced  embryo  quartet  shouting,  'The  bulldog  on  the  bank,'  next 


38 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

to  my  office  or  a  study  hall,  or  a  sharp  voiced  would-be-soprano  singing  do-ra-me  up  to 
high  C." 

Perhaps  that  is  a  little  far  fetched,  yet  many  such  objections  are  very  real  to  some 
people,  hence  the  necessity  of  giving  careful  attention  to  the  location  of  music  and  elocution 
rooms,  and  their  sound  deadening. 

Some  state  laws  prohibit  the  location  of  school  buildings  close  to  factories,  railroad 
tracks  or  noisy  streets.  However,  if  necessity  compels  the  location  of  a  building  in  such 
a  location,  then  plan  the  building  in  such  a  way  that  study  halls  and  class  rooms  are  on 
opposite  sides  from  the  noisy  street  or  factory.  Keep  your  windows  closed  and  supply  the 
needed  ventilation,  through  your  fan  and  reduce  the  annoyance  to  a  minimum. 

By  proper  precaution  in  planning,  almost  every  objectionable  feature  can  be  over- 
come and  a  quiet  building  secured,  while  the  student  efficiency  is  correspondingly  raised. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


39 


Chapter  Eleven 

The  Relative  Merits  of  Finished  Floors 

AT  various  times  in  the  planning  and  constructing  of  school  buildings,  architects  have 

/A    experimented  with  numerous  finished  floor  coverings,  among  which  are  wood,  con- 

crete,   tile,  terrazzo,  marble,  magnesia   composition,  linoleum,  cork,  rock-asphalt 

mastic,  "insulate"  mastic,  and  others.    Each  have  merits  in  different  locations  and  have 

various  purposes.    Each  have  defects  as  well. 

WOOD  FLOORS:  Wood  finished  floors  are  perhaps,  after  all  consideration  of 
various  floor  coverings,  the  most  satisfactory  under  any  and  all  conditions  for  class  rooms 
and  study  rooms.  A  great  many  architects  still  prefer  wood  floors  for  corridors  but  they 
cannot  be  advised  for  use  in  toilet  or  shower  rooms.  Among  the  various  types  of  wood 
floors,  edge  grain  yellow  pine  and  maple  are  the  most  satisfactory,  as  they  give  a  hard, 
long  wearing  service,  easily  kept  clean  and  they  do  not  splinter  up,  in  all  cases  they  should 
be  sand-papered,  scraped,  oiled  and  waxed.  They  should  be  laid  with  narrow  boards, 
\\"  to  2\"  preferred,  blind  nailed  and  well  driven  up  tight.  The  material  should  be 
clear,  end  matched  and  in  lengths  from  \\  foot  up. 

The  only  question  that  might  be 
brought  up  with  reference  to  the  use  of 
wood  floors  for  corridors,  is  their  liability 
of  transmitting  fire  from  one  room  to  an- 
other through  the  corridors  and  their 
noisy  nature  which  no  amount  of  sound 
deadening  can  entirely  eliminate. 

They  are  also  objected  to  by  some 
architects  who  prefer  a  more  attractive 
floor  covering  in  corridor  spaces. 

CONCRETE:  Many  of  the  modern 
fire-proof  constructed  school  buildings 
have  had  their  finished  floor  coverings  of 
concrete  but  after  careful  trial  and  ex- 
perimenting with  different  types  of  sur- 
facings,  the  concrete  has  proven  to  be 
rather  an  objectionable  floor  covering. 
It  is  cold  and  hard,  and  gives  forth  a 
metalic  sound  when  walked  upon,  and  is 
very  uninteresting  in  appearance. 

Aside  from  this  it  is  also  objectionable  owing  to  its  being  liable  to  crack.  The  expan- 
sion and  contraction  in  such  a  floor  causes  fine  surface  cracks  which  mars  the  appearance 
of  the  floor.  Various  paint  products  and  floor  hardners  have  been  used  to  good  advantage 
to  eliminate  the  gritting  and  dusting  which  occurs  in  concrete  floors  and  is  quite  effective, 
but  owing  to  the  expense  necessary  to  put  a  concrete  floor  in  first  class  condition,  makes 
it  more  desirable  to  use  some  other  more  satisfactory  floor  finish.  In  cheaply  constructed 
buildings,  however,  concrete  floors  may  be  used  in  the  toilet  and  shower  rooms  to  good 
advantage  if  floor  hardner  is  included  in  the  top  surface  of  the  floor.  The  hardner  should 
also  be  a  water-proofing  compound  as  concrete  untreated,  is  not  sanitary  as  it  will  absorb 
odors,  ammonia  fumes,  etc. 

TILE  FLOORS.  Tile  floors  make  the  most  satisfactory  floors  for  shower,  lockers 
and  toilet  rooms  as  they  are  sanitary,  easily  kept  clean  and  are  impervious  to  stains, 
odors  or  unsanitary  conditions  generally.  Tile  also  makes  an  attractive  corridor  floor 
and  especially  good  for  vestibules  and  entrances  where  open  doorways  might  permit 


40 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Fig.  43 

Note  the  interesting  patterns  which  can  be  had  with  the  use  of  tile. 

rain  to  blow  in.  Various  pattern  tiles  can  be  had  from  which  an  interesting  selection 
can  be  made  and  such  a  floor  adds  much  to  the  appearance  of  the  interior  of  a  building. 
A  tile  floor,  however,  is  hard,  cold  and  somewhat  noisy  and  expensive,  and  not  conducive 
to  a  quiet  building. 

TARRAZZO  FLOORS.  Terrazzo  floors  are  quite  popular  in  school  buildings, 
used  in  the  same  manner  as  tile  floors  and  in  the  same  places.  Very  interesting  terrazzo 
floors  may  be  built  up,  using  vari  colored  material  and  also  any  color  scheme  can  be 
matched  in  a  terrazzo  floor  and  by  making  selection  of  marble  chips. 

The  floor  is  laid  with  cement  and  marble,  ground  down  to  a  smooth,  level  surface, 
making  an  attractive  appearance.  Owing  to  the  cement  mixture  composing  the  floor, 
however,  the  same  difficulty  of  cracking  is  experienced  with  terrazzo  as  is  experienced 
with  cement  floors.  To  obviate  this  difficulty,  the  terrazzo  is  usually  laid  up  in  moderate 
sized  panels  with  a  small  strip  of  marble  between  to  allow  the  expansion  and  contraction 
to  take  place  at  these  joints.  This  in  a  great  measure  eliminates  the  difficulty  terrazzo 
usually  causes. 

Very  much  the  same  as  tile,  they  are  considerably  more  expensive  than  wood  or 
concrete  floors. 

MARBLE  FLOORS.  Various  corridors  >  vestibules,  toilet  and  shower  room  floors 
are  in  the  more  expensive  buildings  laid  with  slabs  of  marble.  Such  floors  are  very  attrac- 
tive but  are  suitable  only  for  large  monumental  school  work  where  unlimited  funds  are 
available.  There  is  never  any  trouble  from  expansion  and  contraction  and  when  well 
bedded,  the  marble  floors  should  last  indefinitely. 

The  same  objection  to  noise  is  made  against  marble  as  against  the  other  floor  materials 
and  in  consequence,  marble  floor  surfaces  are  usually  limited  to  vestibules,  stair  treads, 
toilet  and  shower  rooms,  if  used  at  all. 

MAGNESIA  COMPOSITION.  Within  the  past  few  years,  magnesia  composition 
floors  under  various  names  such  as  "Fama  Stonewood,"  "Velvet  Tile,"  "Torgomont," 
"Atlas"  floors  and  others  have  been  used  with  varying  success  as  a  finished  floor  used 
in  corridors,  stairs,  landings,  vestibules  and  in  some  instances  toilet  and  shower  rooms. 
These  floors  are  composed  of  a  magnesia  cement,  mixed  with  various  coloring  pigments, 
usually  an  orange  or  dark  red,  and  are  trowelled  onto  the  floor  to  a  smooth  level,  even 
surface.     Magnesia  Composition  floors  are  impervious  to  oils,  acid  stains,  etc.,  but  will 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 41 

disintegrate  when  exposed  to  the  constant  use  of  water.  For  this  reason  it  has  not  been 
successful  when  used  in  toilet  and  shower  rooms. 

This  material  requires  careful  attention  when  laying  and  only  pure  water,  free  from 
lime  can  be  used  in  its  composition.  Careful  tests  of  the  material  should  be  made  before 
laying  if  a  successful  floor  is  to  be  secured.  When  properly  laid  with  good  material,  a  very 
quiet,  attractive  and  sanitary  floor  covering  is  secured.  The  base  running  up  six  or  more 
inches  on  the  wall  is  made  of  the  same  material  but  to  be  successful,  must  have  good 
workmanship.  It  makes  an  especially  fine  tread  for  stairs  as  it  does  not  become  slippery 
and  where  stair  treads  have  an  effective  metal  nosing  built  into  the  cement,  a  neat  finish 
is  secured  and  satisfactory  results  are  obtained. 

LINOLEUM  AND  CORK  FLOORS.  Linoleum  and  cork  floors  are  perhaps  the 
most  quiet  and  noiseless  floor  covering  on  the  market  and  are  especially  valuable  in  cor- 
ridors and  halls  and  the  cork  is  absolutely  essential  for  the  curved  surface  in  a  running 
track.  A  cork  or  linoleum  carpet  should  be  cemented  down  tight  and  have  a  metal  edge 
protector  to  hold  the  open  seams  of  the  linoleum  tight  to  the  floor,  otherwise  if  the  cement 
becomes  loose,  the  linoleum  or  cork  carpet  curls  up  and  becomes  objectionable.  Special 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  surface  upon  which  the  linoleum  or  cork  is  laid,  be  perfectly 
smooth  and  level,  and  in  clean  condition  before  finished  floor  is  placed  upon  it. 

MASTIC  FLOORS.  Within  the  past  few  years,  mastic  has  been  used  in  consider- 
able quantities  for  corridor  floors  in  school  buildings  and  in  some  instances  for  the  floors 
of  vocational  departments.  A  rock-asphalt  mastic  has  been  quite  successfully  used  and 
is  laid  approximately  one  inch  in  thickness,  brought  to  a  smooth,  level  surface.  This 
floor  is  not  attractive  in  appearance  as  it  retains  the  black  asphalt  color  when  completed 
and  leaves  a  rather  gloomy  appearance  in  the  corridors  or  rooms  unless  a  large  amount 
of  window  space  is  put  in  the  buildings.  This  floor  is  tough  and  has  great  wearing  qualities, 
is  impervious  to  acid  and  chemical  stains,  water  and  alkalies,  but  is  soluble  and  will  soften 
by  continual  application  of  petroleum  oils,  gasoline,  etc. 

INSULATE  MASTIC  FLOORS.  Insulate  mastic  is  composed  of  elaterite  gum  and 
asbestos  fibre,  and  is  applied  in  thickness  from  ^  to  3^  of  an  inch  as  a  surface  coat  on 
concrete  or  wood  floors.  This  material  has  been  used  for  only  a  few  years  but  has  proven 
itself  to  be  a  very  quiet,  noiseless  and  inexpensive  floor  covering,  over  concrete,  especially, 
as  it  covers  all  concrete  cracks  and  becomes  harder  and  tougher  with  age.  The  color  is 
better  with  insulate  mastic  than  with  Rock  Asphalt  as  mineral  pigments  are  used  with  it 
and  a  deep  red  or  dark  brown  color  can  be  had.  When  first  laid,  it  is  rather  soft  and 
dents  are  easily  made  in  floor.  Shoe  marks,  however,  soon  disappear  after  the  floor  is 
used  and  in  the  event  any  cracks  should  appear,  an  application  of  liquid  mastic  can  be 
poured  in,  allowed  to  harden  and  no  patches  are  seen  as  it  adheres  to  the  rest  of  the  floor 
and  the  cracks  disappear.  The  mastic  is  waxed  for  a  finished  surface  and  all  dust  and 
dirt  can  be  easily  removed. 

This  material  is  the  cheapest  and  in  many  respects  the  most  satisfactory  of  the  newer 
types  of  finish  floor  covering  and  is  being  used  quite  extensively  for  corridor,  toilet  and 
shower  room  floors  in  many  of  the  best  and  most  expensive  buildings. 


42  PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Twelve 

Windows,  Sky  Lights  and  Light  Problems 

PERHAPS  of  all  the  various  problems  an  architect  has  to  contend  with,  that  of  light- 
ing a  building  and  developing  the  exterior  design  of  the  structure  in  harmony  with 
the  necessary  light  is  the  most  difficult.  A  general  ruling  has  been  made  by  various 
school  departments,  requiring  one-fifth  of  the  total  floor  area  to  be  glass  area  in  either 
window  or  sky  lights.  Also  in  connection  with  the  lighting  of  a  room,  a  general  depth 
of  room  not  to  exceed  twice  the  height  has  been  adopted,  and  where  this  is  done,  the  win- 
dows are  placed  as  near  to  ceiling  line  as  possible,  only  enough  space  above  the  window  is 
left  for  the  casing  or  trim. 

Windows  should  be  so  placed  that  all  light  will  come  in  from  the  left  side  of  the  pupil 
or  from  overhead.  There  has  been  various  rulings  made  by  different  state  departments 
with  reference  to  the  light  coming  into  the  building  from  north,  east,  south  or  west.  Some 
of  the  more  progressive  states  have  made  rulings  that  grade  rooms  or  study  rooms  where 
pupils  were  required  to  sit  constantly  during  the  day,  must  have  east  or  west  light  with 
the  object  of  securing  a  moderate  percentage  of  sun  light  in  the  rooms,  and  in  some  states 
north  light  for  this  purpose  has  been  prohibited  except  where  buildings  were  extremely 
large  and  where  it  was  not  possible  to  secure  this  result  without  undue  expense.  North 
light  has  been  ruled  against  principally,  on  account  of  there  being  no  sun  light  in  the 
room  at  any  time.  Corresponding  south  light  has  been  ruled  against  owing  to  the  excess 
of  sun  light,  and  the  north  and  south  lights  have  been  generally  approved  for  vocational 
departments  or  recitation  rooms. 

However,  no  serious  difficulties  are  encountered  in  planning  a  building  using  light 
from  any  side  under  present  conditions  of  modern  ventilation  and  with  an  adjustable 
curtain.  Where  the  curtain  pole  can  be  raised  or  lowered  at  will,  study  rooms  may  be 
arranged  for  with  light  from  any  side.  As  a  well  operated  ventilation  system  will  over- 
come the  principal  objection  to  north  lighted  rooms  by  supplying  fresh  air,  it  purifies  the 
room  possibly  as  much  as  the  sun  light  would.  In  other  rooms  not  ventilated,  even  with 
east  and  west  lighted  rooms,  sun  light  becomes  so  intense  as  to  be  objectionable  under  cer- 
tain conditions  and  the  windows  must  be  carefully  curtained  to  eliminate  the  objection.  On 
south  lighted  exposures,  the  sun  light  should  be  curtained  off  with  double  curtains  to 
relieve  the  intensity  of  the  light  rather  than  to  use  the  opaque  curtain  which  permits 
no  light  to  penetrate.  The  light  tan  or  Holland  cloth  shade  which  permits  the  passage 
of  sun  light  through  and  distributes  the  light  evenly  over  the  room  should  be  used. 

The  upper  part  of  the  sash  should  have  ribbed  glass  for  diffusion  of  sun  light  or  in 
extreme  deep  rooms,  prism  glass  may  be  used  to  deflect  the  light  and  throw  it  across  to 
the  farther  side  of  the  rooms.  The  adjustable  curtains  shade  these  prisms  when  light  is 
too  intense,  otherwise  the  intense  brilliancy  of  the  sun  light  passing  through  the  prisms 
becomes  quite  objectionable. 

Teachers  should  be  taught  the  vital  necessity  of  adjusting  the  shades  in  their  rooms 
according  to  varying  intensity  of  outside  light  these  shades  should  be  adjusted  daily  so 
that  at  all  times  the  pupils  may  work  under  the  best  possible  light  conditions. 

The  writer  has  seen  a  splendid  lighting  system  absolutely  ruined  so  far  as  the  pupil's 
efficiency  was  concerned  by  lack  of  adjustment  in  the  curtains.  This  is  due,  usually  to 
the  ignorance  of  the  teacher  or  to  carelessness.  They  should  have  the  lighting  problem 
explained  to  them  and  they  should  see  that  adjustment  is  made  when  needed. 

The  windows  should  be  placed  with  their  sills  high  above  the  floors  (about  3£  to 
4  feet)  so  that  the  pupils  are  not  attracted  by  objects  from  the  outside.  The  sash  should 
be  arranged  so  that  they  can  be  easily  cleaned  and  adjusted  to  permit  outside  ventilation 
when  the  fan  is  not  in  operation  during  mild  weather.    A  convenient  method  is,  to  have 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


43 


the  sash  counter-balanced  so  that  when  the  lower  sash  is 
raised,  the  upper  sash  will  be  correspondingly  lowered.  This 
permits  the  warm  air  at  the  top  passing  out  and  cold  air 
entering  at  the  bottom.  In  northern  climates  either  storm 
sash  or  double  glass  in  the  regular  sash  are  needed,  the  double 
glass  being  the  most  convenient  and  easiest  handled.  Double 
glass  eliminates  frost  on  the  panes  of  glass  and  the  dead  air 
space  between  the  panes  of  glass  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat 
and  cold,  and  a  warm  building  is  secured.  The  inside  pane 
of  glass  should  be  put  in  with  stops  so  that  periodically,  this 
pane  of  glass  can  be  taken  out  and  cleaned.  This  becomes 
necessary  every  three  or  four  years,  depending  on  the  tight- 
ness with  which  the  glass  is  stopped  in.  The  original  ex- 
pense on  installation  and  future  handling,  is  considerable 
less  than  storm  sashes.  The  windows  in  the  room  should 
be  placed  close  together  with  narrow  mullions  between. 
This  eliminates  cross  lights  and  shadows. 

Windows  should  not  have  transoms  above  as  the  win- 
dow transom  bar  throws  a  shadow  across  the  room  and  is 
objectionable.  The  most  satisfactory  window  for  school 
room  is  but  one  large  plate  glass  without  cross  bar  or  ob- 
struction. The  writer  has  used  such  windows  very  satisfac- 
torily but  owing  to  the  excessive  cost,  does  not  feel  like  re- 
commending the  expenditure. 

However,  these  windows  were  used  on  a  two  story  build- 
ing where  all  window  cleaning  could  be  accomplished  from 
a  step  ladder  on  the  outside.  The  windows  were  stationary 
with  all  ventilation  obtained  through  a  fan  system. 

A  great  many  of  our  new  buildings  are  being  planned 
with  all  overhead  light  secured  through  sky  lights  in  the 
ceiling  and  roof.  The  light  can  be  very  satisfactorily  se- 
cured in  this  way,  especially  if  the  sky  lights  are  built  with 
a  saw-tooth  construction  which  permits  the  light  coming  in 
from  the  north  or  east  so  that  strong  sun  light  does  not  come 
into  the  room. 

Sky  lights  give  the  most  uniform  distribution  of  light 
during  all  hours  of  the  day,  and  can  be  planned  with  adjust- 
able curtains  to  cut  down  extreme  intensity  of  light  when  de- 
sired.    The  sky  light  construction  is  more  expensive  than  side  lighting  through  windows 
and  can  only  be  used  for  all  rooms  to  advantage  in  one  story  buildings. 


■Jill- 


fig 


44  PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Thirteen 

Doors  and  Their  Hardware,  Fire  Exits 

NO  other  one  item  in  the  construction  of  a  building  can  cause  as  much  annoyance  and 
expense  as  poor  hardware.  Inadequate  provision  for  proper  exits  with  locked  doors 
has  been  the  cause  of  many  a  tragedy.  The  Collingswood  School  fire  at  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  and  the  Iroquois  Theatre  fire  at  Chicago,  with  their  terrible  toll  of  human  lives  might 
have  been  materially  lessened,  if  not  entirely  avoided  if  proper  doors  opening  of  ample 
width  had  been  provided  with  these  doors  unlocked  or  provided  with  automatic  unlocking 
devices.  In  fact  it  was  as  a  result  of  these  disasters  that  serious  attention  was  given 
to  the  designing  of  a  protective  lock  that  would  keep  all  doors  locked  from  the  outside 
and  so  arranged  that  any  slight  pressure  upon  a  cross  bar  running  the  entire  width  of 
the  door  on  the  inside  approximately  thirty  inches  above  the  floor,  would  immediately 
open  the  door  outward,  thus  eliminating  the  danger  of  congestion  at  exits.  Mr.  Harry 
Dupont,  a  prominent  architect  of  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  succeeded  in  perfecting  such  a 
device,  known  as  the  Von-Duprin  fire  exit  lock,  and  no  school  building  should  be  erected 
without  this  device  or  some  other  equally  effective  means  of  opening  locked  doors. 

Do  not  make  the  mistake  of  buying  cheap  hardware.  A  well 
balanced  estimate  of  hardware  cost  to  the  complete  cost  of  a  build- 
ing including  the  general  construction,  heat,  light  and  plumbing  is 
2  per  cent  of  the  whole.  Set  a  high  standard  for  all  locks,  foot 
bolts,  hinges  or  other  movable  parts,  no  matter  how  much  you 
economize  on  finish  or  design  of  plates  escutcheons,  etc.,  if  you  ex- 
pect to  economize  in  the  up-keep  of  your  building.  Master  key  all 
doors  to  rooms,  corridors  and  exits,  for  convenience  of  janitor,  en- 
gineer and  teaching  force.  Provide  locks  to  all  grade,  class  or  study 
rooms  which  may  be  locked  from  the  corridors  but  remain  constant- 
ly unlocked  from  the  room  side.  The  school  is  not  a  prison  and 
there  is  no  need  for  locking  a  room  from  the  room  side.  The  per- 
fect and  continued  operation  of  a  lock  depends  on  four  things. 
First,  a  substantially  built  building  that  will  not  settle  unevenly 
and  warp  the  door  frames.  Second,  a  solid,  rigidly  built  door,  well 
mortised  and  tenoned  together  which  will  not  sag.  Third,  heavy  door  jambs,  securely 
fastened  in  position  with  sufficient  thickness  of  jamb  to  securely  hold  screws,  and  large 
well  proportioned  hinges  securely  screwed  in  place,  preferably  three  hinges  to  the  door 
if  the  door  is  large  and  heavy.  Fourth,  a  well  made  nicely  adjusted  lock  with  the  best  of 
material  in  its  working  parts.  Combine  the  above  with  good  workmanship  in  the  fitting 
and  hanging  of  the  door  and  you  will  have  very  little  trouble  to  keep  it  in  continual 
operation. 

All  corridor  door  and  doors  to  rooms  should  be  fitted  with  foot  bolts  to  hold  the 
doors  open,  with  rubber  bumpers  to  stop  the  doors  from  bumping  against  the  walls  and 
door  checks  to  stop  them  from  slamming  shut.  Precaution  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
the  use  of  too  strong  a  check  on  doors  to  kindergarten  or  grade  rooms  for  small  children. 
Strong  door  checks  are  needed  on  outside  doors  to  close  them  in  windy  weather,  in  conse- 
quence young  children  are  unable  to  open  the  door  and  have  been  compelled  to  stand 
outside,  often  in  snow  or  rain,  as  this  cannot  be  avoided  without  losing  the  efficiency 
of  the  closing  device.  The  difficulty  has  been  overcome  by  stationing  an  older  pupil  at 
the  door  during  stated  periods  to  open  the  door.  A  push  button  should  always  be  con- 
veniently located  at  entrances  connected  to  a  bell  in  the  janitor's  room  so  young  children 
may  call  for  the  door  to  be  opened. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS         45 

Planning  of  exits,  should  take  into  consideration  the  convenience  of  pupils.  Pro- 
vision should  be  made  to  shelter  those  who  come  early  before  the  doors  are  opened,  espec- 
ially during  extremely  cold  weather  in  northern  climates  where  a  few  minutes  exposure 
might  mean  great  discomfort.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  vestibules,  heated,  whose 
outside  doors  may  be  unlocked  early  in  the  morning  and  where  the  regulation  of  the 
school  does  not  permit  of  children  entering  the  building  until  a  given  time,  the  inside 
vestibule  doors  may  remain  locked  until  the  appointed  time  for  opening. 

The  number  and  arrangement  of  exits  should  be  governed  by.  the  size  and  kind  of 
school  building  whether  grade,  high  or  combined,  division  of  playground  space,  etc., 
width  of  exit  door  ways  should  be  governed  by  the  width  of  stairways.  The  following 
proportion  has  been  found  good.  Multiply  the  width  of  stairways  by  one  and  one-fifth, 
the  resultant  being  the  proper  width  of  doorway.  See  page  (16)  for  width  of  stair- 
ways in  proportion  to  number  of  pupils.  Exits  should  be  arranged  so  younger  pupils 
will  not  be  compelled  to  mingle  with  older  pupils,  thus  aiding  the  management  of  the 
school  to  control  the  pupils.  With  this  convenience  and  playgrounds  properly  divided 
and  supervised,  there  should  be  little  or  no  conflict  between  the  older  and  younger  pupils. 
Where  a  high,  grade  and  junior  school  is  combined  in  one  building,  separate  entrances 
should  be  provided  for  each. 

All  doors  throughout  the  building  opening  to  corridors  or  vestibules  should  be  of 
glass  to  assist  with  the  lighting  of  corridors.  Where  double  vestibule  doors  are  used  the 
usual  method  of  joining  the  two  doors  is  by  means  of  a  wood  astra 
gal,  but  where  the  fire  exit  locks  are  used,  the  astragal  is  objection 
able  as  it  becomes  necessary  to  open  both  doors  at  once,  further 
more  the  astragal  does  not  form  a  very  tight  stop  in  cold  climates 


so  a  better  means  of  closing  the  space  between  double  doors  is        wv)eeTiM<s-.3TiL£.- 
shown  in  detail,  Figure   (45)   shows  a  rubber  connection  which  f-io^j 

permits  of  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  doors  and  always  keeps  them  tight  while  per 
in  it  ting  either  door  to  be  opened  singly. 


46  PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Fourteen 

Standards  of  Size  and  Arrangements  of  Departments 

WHILE  there  may  be  a  wide  range  of  latitude  in  the  general  plan  of  a  building,  yet 
practical  experience  has  demonstrated  the  necessity  of  limiting  certain  parts  of  a 
building  to  certain  dimensions,  and  while  there  may  be  some  slight  difference  of 
opinion  with  reference  to  the  following  standards  of  size  and  arrangements,  yet  a  majority 
of  the  recognized  authorities  agree  in  most  instances. 

A  grade  class  or  study  room  ceiling  height  should  never  be  less  than  twice  the  width 
of  the  room  and  a  minimum  height  should  be  12'  0".  Glass  area  for  all  rooms  should  never 
be  less  than  one-fifth  the  total  floor  area.  Windows  should  in  all  cases  be  never  less  than 
6"  below  ceilings  and  3'  6"  to  4'  0"  above  floor  line  to  top  of  window  stool. 

Depth  of  any  grade  or  class  room  should  not  exceed  30'  0"  as  the  normal  vision  would 
be  strained  to  observe  blackboard  exercises  at  a  greater  distance. 

.The  following  heights  of  blackboards  above  the  floor  and  size  of  blackboards  has 
been  adopted  by  the  state  of  Minnesota  as  a  standard  regulation  and  this  agrees  with 
general  practice  elsewhere. 

Sec.  22 — Blackboards  of: 

Each  school  room  must  have  at  least  one  hundred  (100)  square  feet  of  substantial 
blackboard,  preferably  slate.  Composition  boards,  or  slated  walls,  are,  as  a  rule,  un- 
satisfactory, and  will  be  permitted  only  upon  special  request  by  the  school  board. 

The  height  of  blackboards  from  the  floor  shall  be  for  primary  rooms,  not  more  than 
twenty-four  (24)  inches;  for  intermediate  rooms,  twenty-six  (26)  to  twenty-eight  (28)  in- 
ches; for  grammar  grades,  not  more  than  thirty  (30)  inches,  except  that  the  front  board 
used  mainly  by  the  teacher  may  be  from  thirty  (30)  to  thirty-two  (32)  inches  from  the 
floor.     The  width  of  the  blackboards  should  be  not  less  than  forty-two  (42)  inches. 

There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  amount  of  blackboard  space 
necessary  in  rooms,  depending  on  the  subject  taught,  and  the  architect  who  covers  every 
available  space  in  grade  or  class  rooms  with  blackboard  will  not  be  severely  criticized, 
as  there  are  times  when  no  amount  of  blackboard  space  would  be  adequate  for  an  entire 
class  to  work  at  one  time. 

The  tendency  to  overcrowd  rooms  with  pupils  has  been  the  cause  of  much  ill  health 
and  spread  of  contagion  in  the  schools  and  has  resulted  in  regulation  of  the  number  of 
students  permitted  in  a  room.  Some  states  allow  one  pupil  for  each  fifteen  square  feet 
of  floor  space  or  one  pupil  to  each  180  cubic  feet  of  room  space  while  some  state  regulations 
permit  one  pupil  to  each  eighteen  square  feet  of  floor  space  of  216  cubic  feet  of  room 
space  per  pupil.  The  writer  has  used  200  cubic  feet  per  pupil  as  the  minimum  for  some 
years  past  with  very  satisfactory  results,  in  many  instances  reducing  the  floor  space  per 
pupil  to  eleven  or  twelve  feet  per  pupil  but  raising  the  ceiling  height  correspondingly 
to  secure  the  necessary  cubic  contents.  This  has  proven  more  satisfactory  in  many 
instances  than  to  adhere  strictly  to  the  larger  square  foot  area,  making  possible  a  better 
ventilation  and  more  attractive  room  size. 

The  tendency  to  build  smaller  rooms  for  grade  purposes  to  accommodate  fewer 
pupils  has  been  increasing  the  past  few  years,  thus  reducing  the  number  of  pupils  to 
any  one  teacher  and  increasing  the  amount  of  attention  given  to  the  individual  pupil. 
While  some  schools  are  still  being  planned  to  accommodate  thirty-five  to  forty  pupils, 
yet  the  tendency  is  to  accommodate  thirty  to  thirty-five  as  a  maximum.  Some  educators 
advocate  twenty-five  as  the  number  a  teacher  can  best  take  care  of.  However,  as  the 
number  of  pupils  vary  in  grades  or  classes  from  year  to  year,  it  is  well  to  plan  for  maximum 
classes  so  thirty-five  to  the  room  has  met  with  general  approval  by  a  majority  of  educators 
consulted. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 47 

Where  cloak  rooms  are  used,  they  should  be  connected  to  grades  with  two  doors 
opening  to  the  class  room  to  enable  the  teacher  to  see  the  pupils  as  they  enter  and  leave 
the  cloak  room.  Cloak  rooms  should  always  be  provided  with  outside  light  not  less  than 
one-tenth  the  floor  area.    Cloak  rooms  should  have  a  minimum  width  of  five  feet. 

Where  High  or  Junior  schools  are  planned  with  study  halls,  the  recitation  rooms 
should  be  small  to  accommodate  thirty  pupils  and  average  400  to  500  square  feet  of  floor 
space.  Where  the  study  hall  is  omitted  and  class  rooms  are  used  they  should  be  larger 
to  accommodate  two  classes  and  have  an  area  of  800  to  1,000  square  feet.  Where  the 
plan  of  a  school  is  adapted  that  uses  a  moderate  sized  study  hall  to  accommodate  an 
overflow  study  period  of  approximately  150  pupils,  there  should  be  a  combination  of 
small  recitation  rooms,  this  provides  a  very  pliable  arrangement  that  works  out  to  good 
advantage  in  the  management  of  the  school  and  the  change  of  classes.  A  room  to  accom- 
modate 150  pupils  may  be  thirty  feet  by  sixty  feet  with  a  seventeen  foot  ceiling  height, 
this  will  be  easily  lighted  and  ventilated,  and  short  enough  for  convenient  supervision. 
In  several  instances  study  halls  have  been  built  on  intermediate  floors,  adjacent  to  class 
rooms  where  the  class  room  height  was  twelve  feet,  and  of  necessity  the  study  room 
ceiling  was  the  same  height,  making  it  necessary  to  build  long  narrow  rooms  twenty-four 
by  ninety-three  feet,  six  inches.  However,  such  shaped  rooms  should  be  avoided  owing 
to  the  difficulty  of  supervising  pupils  at  the  rear  of  such  a  long  room. 

While  the  size  of  the  school  will  regulate  the  size  of  various  departments,  yet  a  mini- 
mum of  1,000  square  feet  (has  been  found  good  practice  for  schools  of  400  to  500  pupils) 
for  manual  training,  domestic  science,  agriculture  and  commercial  departments,  larger 
schools  being  increased  proportionately.  No  hard  and  fast  rule  will  apply,  however, 
as  a  small  consolidated  country  school  may  require  a  very  large  agricultural  department 
and  devote  a  very  small  part  of  the  time  to  manual  training,  while  the  city  school  probably 
would  reverse  the  arrangement. 

The  width  of  a  corridor  should  be  adopted  after  careful  consideration  for  its  use 
and  the  amount  of  travel  through  it,  Minnesota  regulation  permits  a  minimum  of  ten 
feet  for  main  corridor  and  eight  feet  for  secondary  corridors.  St.  Louis  schools  are  planned 
with  fifteen  feet  to  sixteen  feet  main  corridors  and  ten  feet  secondary  corridors.  If  a 
minimum  of  ten  feet  for  main  corridors  for  a  school  of  400  pupils  is  adopted,  increasing 
the  corridor  one  foot  for  every  additional  150  pupils  up  to  a  maximum  width  of  fifteen 
feet  for  the  widest  main  corridor  and  from  eight  feet  with  400  pupils  increasing  six  inches 
for  each  150  additional  pupils  up  to  a  maximum  of  eighteen  feet  for  the  widest  secondary 
corridor,  no  mistake  will  be  made.  A  good  many  quite  large  and  successful  schools 
have  rather  narrow  corridors.  The  advantage,  however,  of  large  corridors,  is  in  the 
minimum  amount  of  confusion  resulting  from  the  change  of  classes.  Wide  corridors 
permit  double  files  of  students  to  pass  in  both  directions  at  once,  without  conflict.  Where 
large  corridors  are  used,  double  stairways  should  be  also  used  with  the  same  object  in 
view.  This  permits  of  a  shorter  period  of  class  change.  However,  no  conflict  will  result 
in  the  narrow  corridor  if  pupils  pass  in  single  file  provided  one  minute  is  added  to  the 
period  for  the  class  change.  Where  funds  are  available  the  wider  corridor  should  be 
adopted,  as  the  appearance  of  the  building  is  much  enhanced,  ventilation  and  light  is 
also  better  and  regulation  of  the  class  changes  need  not  be  so  strict.  The  gymnasium 
should  be  sufficiently  large  to  accommodate  indoor  baseball,  basket  ball,  volley  ball, 
handball  and  other  athletic  sports  with  a  minimum  of  2,500  square  feet  of  floor  space 
and  a  minimum  ceiling  height  of  fifteen  feet,  with  a  recommended  size  of  4,000  square 
feet  (50'  x  80')  with  a  clear  ceiling  height  below  beams  of  eighteen  feet.  Shower  and 
locker  rooms  should  be  large  enough  to  accommodate  groups  of  fifty  pupils  each  with 
six  individual  shower  and  two  dressing  rooms  to  each  shower. 

Toilet  rooms  should  be  provided  on  each  floor  with  fixtures  estimated  as  follows, 
assuming  the  proportion  of  girls  to  boys  as  60  per  cent  to  40  per  cent :  One  toilet  to  each 
fifteen  girls  and  one  toilet  for  every  thirty  boys  and  one  urinal  for  every  thirty  boys  with 
one  lavatory  to  each  three  other  fixtures. 

Where  septic  tanks  are  used  for  sewerage  the  tank  should  hold  two  cubic  feet  per 
pupil  in  the  school. 


48 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Fifteen 

Arrangement  and  Equipment  of  Manual  Training  Department 

A  COMPLETE  manual  training  department  should  include  (in  the  following  arrange- 
ment) lumber  and  dry  room,  machine  room,  bench  shop,  finishing  room  with  paint 
vault  and  drafting  room  if  carpentry  and  joinery  only  is  taught.  Where  metal  work- 
ing is  taught,  a  pattern  room,  core  room,  foundry,  forge  room,  machine  shop  and  as- 
sembling room  will  complete  the  whole.  Small  schools  combine  many  of  these  features 
in  one  or  two  rooms,  according  to  the  amount  of  work  attempted. 

The  lumber  room  should  be  so  arranged  that  long  lengths  of  lumber  can  be  readily 
handled  without  turning.  This  is  Often  accomplished  by  the  use  of  folding  doors  which 
take  up  the  side  of  the  room.  The  lumber  is  stacked  on  a  rack  and  can  be  slid  off  easily 
onto  trestles  for  cutting  to  length.  Where  funds  will  permit  the  lumber  room  should 
be  built  as  a  dry  kiln  with  sides  insulated  and  heat  coils  provided  to  raise  the  temperature 
and  kiln  dry  all  lumber.  This  insures  good  work  and  enables  the  pupils  to  turn  out  a 
much  superior  class  of  work.  Where  space  and  funds  are  limited,  the  lumber  rack  is 
often  built  against  one  side  of  the  room  and  is  not  inclosed.  While  some  teachers  do  not 
consider  this  any  objection,  there  are  others  who  object  on  the  grounds  that  students 
take  lumber  at  will  and  waste  results.  However,  pupils  who  are  put  on  honor  seldom 
need  locked  doors,  and  confidence  placed  in  them  more  often  results  in  much  good  so 
we  see  but  little  reason  for  locking  up  the  lumber  supply  even  if  space  will  permit  of  a 

separate  room  for  it. 

The  bench  shop  should 
be  large  enough  to  accom- 
modate a  minimum  class  of 
twenty  pupils  in  any  case 
with  an  allowance  of  not 
less  than  thirty-five  square 
feet  per  pupil,  fifty  is  better. 
Individual  benches  should 
be  provided  with  tool  draw- 
ers, these  to  be  various 
heights  from  twenty-six  in- 
ches to  thirty-two  inches,  ac- 
commodate different  height 
pupils.  Benches  should  be 
set  two  feet  apart  end  to 
end  with  a  minimum  of 
three  feet  between  them, 
more  if  space  permits.  A 
space  should  be  left  at  one 
end  or  side  of  the  room 
for  assembling  work,  this  to 
be  adjacent  to  the  finish- 
ing room.  The  bench  room  should  be  equipped  with  a  large  sink,  glue  pot,  grindstone,  vise 
and  clamp  closet  or  cabinet  and  supply  cabinet. 

The  glue  pot  may  be  of  steam,  electric,  or  gas  heated  type  as  convenient.  In  any 
case  a  water  and  drain  connection  should  run  to  this  pot  for  convenience  of  supply  and 
waste.  A  steam  heated  pot  is  good,  where  the  building  is  run  by  steam  engines  and  steam 
is  available  all  year,  and  is  most  economical.  Where  gas  is  available  it  can  be  used  eco- 
nomically.   Electric  is  the  most  even  heat  but  most  expensive. 


Fig.  46 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


49 


-pi-am  -"h-h  \  yri>-*7- 


The  clamp  cabinet  or  closet  should  be 
large  enough  to  contain  large  seven  foot 
and  eight  foot  clamps  and  a  large  number 
of  small  wood  screw  clamps. 

The  supply  cabinet  should  be  made 
to  hold  all  varieties  of  hardware,  screws, 
brads,  nails,  etc.  Various  size  drawers 
should  be  put  in  three  to  four  inches  wide 
and  as  deep,  similar  to  cut  No.  (47) 
shown  on  this  page.  These  drawers  and 
bins  for  nails  may  be  indexed  and  num- 
bered for  convenience. 

The  machine  room  should  be  located 
adjacent  to  both  lumber  and  bench  room 
with  open  arch  or  folding  doors  between 
bench  room  and  machine  room. 

The  machine  room  should  have  a  cut-off  and  rip  saw,  emery  stone  and  band  saw  if 
nothing  else,  then  a  joiner,  several  turning  lathes  and  a  mortiser  if  funds  are  available. 
Such  an  equipment  will  permit  of  doing  a  large  variety  of  work.  Other  equipment  such 
as  spindle  shaper,  sticker  and  machine  sander,  all  aid  in  turning  out  exceptional  work 
and  a  complete  vocational  school  should  include  all  of  them  but  small  schools  can  accom- 
plish much  with  a  small  equipment  if  a  proper  selection  of  lumber  is  made  as  to  thickness, 
shape  and  size  so  excessive  labor  can  be  avoided  in  the  working  up  of  material  to  shape. 
There  has  been  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  among  manual  training  teachers  with  reference 
to  the  use  of  machines  in  manual  training  work,  some  condemning  the  use  of  machines 
on  the  grounds  that  students  should  be  taught  the  use  of  hand  tools  exclusively,  as  it 
would  make  better  workmen  of  them,  and  it  is  surprising  how  many  teachers  actively 
engaged  in  the  work,  will  use  this  argument.  The  facts  are  different,  however,  as  no 
manual  training  instructor  who  has  once  used  machinery  in  connection  with  his  class 
work  is  willing  to  plod  along  without  them  if  it  can  be  avoided.  Students  should  be 
taught  the  use  of  cut-off  and  rip  saw  and  should  be  required  to  handle  them  successfully 
before  being  permitted  the  use  of  machines,  also  the  age  of  the  student  and  his  disposition 
to  be  careful  or  reckless,  should  enter  into  the  decision  of  the  instructor  to  permit  the 
students  to  use  the  machines.  In  fact  there  are  a  good  many  instructors  who  do  all  the 
machine  work  for  the  students,  keeping  them  busy  at  the  bench.  For  the  younger  pupils 
this  is  undoubtedly  the  best.  Machinery  in  the  manual  training  work  lightens  the 
drudgery  and  keeps  up  the  students'  interest  in  the  work  as  they  do  the  work  quickly, 
avoiding  the  natural  tendency  of  young  pupils  to  tire  of  the  problem  before  completion. 

The  finishing  room  should  be  placed  near  the  shop  with  connecting  doors  if  possible. 
This  room  should  be  dry  and  light  with  the  paint  vault  adjoining.  All  staining  and  var- 
nishing being  done  here  all  dust  should  be  kept  out.  A  cabinet  should  be  provided  in  this 
room  for  finishing  hardware  and  one  side  of  the  room  should  have  shelves  thirty  inches 
wide,  thirty-six  inches  apart,  to  support  finished  work.  These  shelves  should  extend  to 
the  ceiling  so  the  floor  space  can  be  left  free  for  finishing  work.  With  shelf  space  a  room 
of  200  square  feet  makes  a  large  finishing  room.  The  paint  vault  should  be  built  fireproof 
with  tile  or  brick  walls,  floor  and  ceiling,  with  a  metal  fire  door  enclosing  it  so  no  danger 
need  be  feared  from  spontaneous  combustion  in  the  oils  or  paints.  Sufficient  depth  and 
shelf  space  should  be  provided  in  this  vault  to  contain  all  supplies  and  have  room  also 
to  mix  all  paints,  stains,  etc.,  sixty  square  feet  of  floor  space  is  ample  for  a  large  department. 

The  drafting  room  should  accommodate  a  class  of  twenty  in  the  school  of  400  pupils. 
With  larger  schools  the  work  can  be  divided  into  more  periods  without  enlarging  the 
class.  The  room  should  be  figured  for  thirty  square  feet  per  pupil  with  a  drawing  table 
thirty  inches  by  forty-two  inches,  with  at  least  five  drawers  thirty  inches  in  length,  twelve 
inches  in  width,  four  inches  to  five  inches  deep,  down  one  side,  for  each  pupil  to  have 
an  individual  drawer  for  inks,  instruments,  etc.  One  large  detail  table  at  least  three  feet 
six  inches  by  eight  feet  should  be  included  for  special  work,  perspective  drawings,  etc. 


50 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

A  supply  cabinet  should  be  included  large  enough  for  detail  paper,  tracing  paper  and 
cloth,  thirty-six  inches  in  length,  with  special  drawers  for  inks,  pencils,  T  squares,  tri- 
angles, etc.  The  space  for  T  squares  and  triangles  should  be  large  enough  for  the  entire 
class.  A  dark  room  or  closet  for  blue  prints  is  a  great  convenience  and  in  any  case  a  blue 
print  frame  thirty  inches  by  forty-two  inches,  six  inches  deep,  should  be  provided.  A 
sink  made  of  hardwood  and  zinc  or  lead  lined  with  cold  water  connection  and  drain  should 
be  provided  in  dark  room  or  in  a  convenient  corner  of  the  room  for  washing  prints.  The 
pattern  room  should  be  supplied  with  similar  equipment  to  the  bench  shop  and  in  small 
schools  the  same  room  will  serve. 

The  core  room  may  be  small  or  if  a  separate  room  is  not  available  this  work  may  be 
handled  in  the  foundry.  One  large  bench  three  feet  by  eight  feet  with  drawers  eight 
inches  deep  extending  to  floor  with  a  bake  oven  will  serve  for  this  work.  The  foundry 
and  moulding  room  should  have  1,000  square  feet  of  floor  space  for  a  class  of  25  and 
should  have  a  vitrous  brick,  or  hard  packed  clay  floor  that  can  be  kept  dry.  A 
continuous  long  bench  thirty  inches  high,  thirty  inches  wide,  along  one  side  of  the  room 
with  drawers  for  each  student  should  be  provided,  also  low  benches  for  the  flasks  and  a 
sand  box  to  hold  two  yards  of  moulding  sand.  For  the  average  school  a  small  furnace 
capable  of  melting  soft  metals  is  ample  but  where  all  kinds  of  metal  work  is  attempted  a 
cupalo  furnace  will  be  necessary.  A  swinging  crane  to  handle  melting  pots  may  be  pro- 
vided with  direct  outside  vents  and  an  exhaust  fan.  The  forge  room  should  be  equipped 
to  accommodate  a  class  of  twenty  to  twenty-five  pupils  estimating  forty  square  feet  per 
pupil.  The  floor  should  be  of  concrete  brick  or  hard  clay  but  in  any  event  forges  should 
be  of  the  down  draft  type  set  6n  a  concrete  base  and  be  supplied  with  underground  piping. 
The  fan  and  blower  should  be  in  a  separate  room  if  convenient. 

A  complete  equipment  should  consist  of  individual  forges  and  anvils  for  each  pupil 
and  for  each  two  pupils,  a  drill  press,  power  hammer,  wet  grinder,  punch  and  shears 
and  filing  bench.  However,  schools  who  wish  to  teach  rudimentary  work  may  supply 
hand  power  forges  and  anvils  with  benches  for  each  two  pupils  and  hand  tools  for  a  general 
line  of  small  work.  All  forges  should  be  connected  with  an  exhaust  fan  to  take  out  smoke 
and  fumes. 

The  machine  shop  should  have  at  least  eighty  square  feet  per  pupil  in  order  to  accom- 
modate lathes,  drills,  planes,  punches,  and  emery  grinders  and  benches.  While  individual 
machines  are  desirable  yet  the  expense  of  such  equipment  usually  prohibits  a  small  school 
from  making  a  complete  selection.  A  class  of  twelve  to  sixteen  pupils  may  do  good  work 
with  four  lathes,  three  drills,  two  planers,  individual  benches  and  emery  grinder,  one  or 
more  elaborate  machines  may  be  installed  for  special  work  where  funds  will  permit. 

Where  electrical  subjects  are  taught  a  room  for  this  purpose  should  have  power  wire 
connections  brought  up  to  a  switch  cabinet  and  several  floor  and  baseboard  outlets  should 
be   provided. 

Note  what  is  said  about  these  departments  in  chapters  on  "Sound  Deadening" 
and  "Planning  the  School." 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


51 


Chapter  Sixteen 


Arrangement  and  Equipment  of  Domestic  Science  Department 

A  COMPLETE  Domestic  Science  department  may  include  a  kitchen,  store  room,  but- 
ler's pantry  or  both  combined,  a  model  dining  room,  model  bed  chamber,  sewing 
L  rooms  and  fitting  rooms,  cafeteria  or  lunch  room,  and  laundry. 

Too  much  cannot  be  said  in  favor  of  a  thoroughly  complete  department  for  the 
teaching  of  domestic  science,  and  it  is  encouraging  to  note  the  rapid  progress  that  is 
being  made  in  this  study  where  a  few  years  ago  two  rooms  housed  the  whole  subject 
(kitchen  and  sewing  room),  and  that  in  many  instances  installed,  because  of  state  regula- 
tion, against  the  wishes  of  school  boards  and  quite  often  without  much  enthusiasm  on 
the  part  of  the  superintendent  or  teaching  force.  Now  it  would  be  hard  to  find  a  school 
of  any  consequence  which  does  not  include  this  subject,  as  the  school  building  of  today 
becomes  more  and  more  useful  to  the  masses  as  a  whole  rather  than  a  study  room  for 
children  where  perhaps  once  a  year  at  commencement  time  the  grown-up  population 
renewed  their  acquaintance  with  the  school  building. 

The  well  planned  building  of  today  becomes  the  civic  center  for  community  gather- 
ings where  the  citizens  of  the  ward  or  district  may  gather  at  lectures,  literary  programs, 
class  plays,  political  meetings  and  where  enthusiastic  lovers  of  athletic  games  may  attend 
the  class  meetings  staged  on  the  gymnasium  floor.  Because  of  such  meetings  the  domestic 
science  department  has  grown  and  expanded  until  the  refreshment  feature  has  become 
one  of  the  drawing  attractions  to  bring  out  the  people.  Who  was  the  author  of  the  state- 
ment that,  "The  way  to  a  man's  heart  is  through  his  stomach?"  as  the  people  are  drawn 
into  the  life  of  the  school  they  are  brought  that  much  closer  to  the  intimate  life  of  their 
children.  As  the  consolidated  school  has  more  and  more  drawn  the  students  from  a 
distance,  the  cold  unpalatable  lunch,  because  of  the  cafeteria,  has  quickly  been  replaced 
by  the  warm,  wholesome,  strengthening  lunch  that  amply  repays  its  cost  in  better  health, 
vitality  and  increased  efficiency  of  the  student.  So  do  not  begrudge  the  cost  or  the  space 
occupied  by  this  depart- 
ment and  above  all  do  not 
be  miserly  with  its  equip- 
ment. The  successful  manu- 
facturer never  hesitates 
when  better  machinery 
means  success  and  the 
school  board  should  view 
the  success  of  the  school  in 
exactly  the  same  way. 

The  kitchen  should  be 
planned  to  accommodate  a 
class  of  twenty  pupils  esti- 
mating thirty  square  feet 
per  pupil.  Table  space 
should  be  arranged  for  each 
pupil  two  feet  by  two  feet 
six  inches,  with  single  burn- 
er hot  plates  for  each  stud- 
ent and  an  oven  for  each  two 
pupils.  A  separate  demon- 
stration table  two  feet  by  _..  ,      .   _,  , ,  „.  ,  |»f-  *8_    ,     ,  ,  .  , ,  .  . 

j2        /.  i        ill  •  i     i  Ritchen  in  Sheldon.  Iowa,  High  School  Teachers  demonstration  table  in  fore- 

rive  feet  should  be  provided    ground. 


52 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

for  the  instructor  with  single  hot  plate.  A  large  four  to  six-burner  range  with  large  baking 
oven  should  be  installed  and  at  least  two  large  sinks  having  double  drain  boards  and  a 
large  ice  box  that  may  be  iced  from  the  outside  of  the  building.  The  store  room  should 
be  placed  back  of  the  instructor's  desk  and  be  fitted  with  metal  lined  flour,  sugar  and 
meal  bins,  drawers  for  linen  and  silver  ware,  dish  and  supply  cupboards,  and  utensil 
closets.  If  a  butler's  pantry  can  be  installed  the  store  room  will,  of  course,  be  fitted  for 
supplies  only.  Many  small  schools,  where  space  is  not  available,  build  supply  cupboards 
in  the  kitchen  across  one  end  or  side  of  the  room,  without  inconvenience. 

Special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  ventilation  of  the  kitchen  as  a  hot  plate  will 
consume  as  much  oxygen  as  two  pupils  and  a  range  as  much  as  three  or  four.  With  this 
in  mind  the  quantity  of  fresh  air  delivered  to  this  room  should  be  three  times  the  amount 
delivered  to  other  rooms  in  the  building. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  given  to  the  selection  of  the  fuel  for  cooking  purposes, 
opinion  varying  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  coal,  coal  gas,  Blau-gas,  acetylene,  kerosene, 
gasoline  or  electricity  as  to  cost  and  desirability.  Coal  and  kerosene  because  of  the  smoke 
and  dirt  is  seldom  used  and  there  is  a  very  active  rivalry  between  "Blau-gas, "acetylene 
and  gasoline,  with  honors  about  even.  Gasoline  when  piped  in  from  a  generator  outside 
of  the  building  is  an  economical  type  of  gas  and  used  extensively,  but  if  ventilation  is  at 
all  poor,  the  excessive  amount  of  carbon  monoxide  thrown  off,  causes  headaches  and 
smarting  of  the  eyes. 

"Blau-gas"  which  is  delivered  in  bottles  in  compressed  form,  is  successfully  used  at 
a  moderate  expense  and  while  some  carbon  monoxide  is  thrown  off,  it  is  not  so  bad  as  from 
gasoline. 

Acetylene  is  practically  free  from  carbon  monoxide  and  is  a  non-poisonous  gas  and 
is  used  extensively.  At  one  time  this  form  of  gas  was  considered  quite  dangerous  because 
of  its  high  explosive  nature,  but  recent  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  generators 
has  overcome  their  objection  and  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  are  approving 
certain  type  machines  which  are  placed  outside  of  the  building  in  pits  very  much  on  the 
same  order  as  the  gasoline  outfits  are  located. 

Coal  gas  is  used  in  a  majority  of  schools  where  city  gas  plants  are  in  operation  and 
while  this  is  a  good  fuel  it  throws  off  the  largest  amount  of  carbon  monoxide  of  any  gas 
and  students  have  been  known  to  become  sick  and  dizzy  from  too  much  of  it  and  where 
used  special  exhaust  hoods,  connected  to  under  floor  piping  and  an  exhaust  fan  should 
be  installed  to  eliminate  this  annoyance.  Electricity  while  more  expensive  than  any  other 
fuel  makes  the  cleanest,  most  even  and  in  many  ways  most  satisfactory  fuel  there  is. 
As  the  cost  of  other  fuels  advance,  there  is  a  likelihood  of  electric  current  being  more 
generally  adopted  as  modern  improvements  in  generating  apparatus  and  the  installation 
of  giant  water  power  plants  all  tend  to  keep  electric  current  from  increasing  in  cost. 
Some  school  boards  object  to  using  electric  fuel  in  schools,  basing  their  reason  on  the 
assumption  that  it  will  never  be  used  by  the  pupils  in  their  homes.  This  argument  is 
groundless  as  the  teaching  in  a  domestic  science  kitchen  is  not  devoted  to  the  teaching 
of  fuels,  further  than  to  regulate  the  heat.  It  is  devoted  to  the  teaching  of  cooking  and 
any  heat  whether  at  home  or  school  must  be  regulated  to  secure  satisfactory  results, 
consequently  any  fuel  may  be  used  if  its  requirements  are  arranged  for  and  its  ill  effects 
guarded  against. 

The  model  dining  room  need  not  be  large  but  should  be  well  appointed  and  be  as 
its  name  implies,  a  model  such  as  any  well  appointed  home  might  have.  One  or  two  large 
extension  tables  to  seat  ten  each  with  servicable  chairs  should  be  furnished,  also  a  buffet. 
Two  or  three  small  serving  tables  for  tray  rests  may  be  added  to  the  equipment.  Paneled 
or  wainscot  walls  up  to  a  plate  rail  with  paneled  ceilings  add  to  the  effect. 

A  model  bedroom  should  be  provided  for  in  a  large  school  but  may  be  small  where 
room  will  not  permit  of  a  separate  model  bedroom.  The  fitting  room  may  be  used  for 
this  with  a  wall  closet  and  wall  bed  attached.  The  art  of  bed  making  is  an  interesting 
one  that  few  girls  are  acquainted  with.  The  proper  folding  of  bed  coverings,  adds  much 
to  the  appearance  of  a  bed  and  the  high  class  hotel  chamber  maid  is  an  adept  at  this. 
A  young  lady  graduate  of  an  eastern  college  who  had  studied  the  method  of  bed  making, 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


53 


was  enabled  to  earn  over  $100.00  per  month  in  a  large  hotel,  training  bedroom  girls  to 
arrange  the  bedroom  linens  to  best  present  an  attractive  appearance.  Girls  should  be 
trained  to  neatness  and  the  model  bedroom  offers  some  interesting  problems  for  the 
future  housekeeper  to  solve. 

The  cafeteria  or  lunch 
room  should  be  planned 
with  seats  to  accommodate 
one-fifth  of  the  entire  school 
at  one  time.  If  more  can. 
be  provided  do  so  but  not 
less.  This  will  enable  the 
entire  school  to  have  lunch 
in  five  twenty-minute  pe- 
riods. The  cafeteria  should 
be  equipped  with  a  large 
range,  sink  with  double 
drain  boards,  milk,  hot 
water  and  coffee  urns,  ice 
water  cooler  or  connections 
to  regulate  water  supply 
with  water  goblet  rack, 
steam  table  having  vegeta- 
ble and  gravy  bowls,  and  at 
least  two  covered  meat 
platters.  The  steam  table 
should  be  built  into  the 
center  of  a  larger  counter 
which  should  be   at   least 


Fig.  49 

Cafeteria  in  basement  of  old  grade  school  building  at  Sheldon,  Iowa.  Two 
rooms  were  thrown  together  to  make  this  large  room.  Note  the  complete  equip- 
ment at  rear  of  room. 


thirty  inches  wide,  the  entire  length  across  one  end  of  the  room.  Under  this  counter 
on  the  back  side  should  be  placed  shelving  with  sliding  glass  doors  to  cover,  where 
all  pastries,  bread  and  supplies  may  be  stored.  A  pipe  railing  should  be  placed  three 
feet  from  counter,  requiring  all  students  to  follow  in  line,  passing  out,  after  lunching, 
past  a  cashier's  table.  The  lunch  table  should  be  thirty  inches  wide  and  any  length  that 
will  permit  of  spacing  stools  twenty-six  inches  center  to  center.  Tables  should  be  spaced 
forty-two  inches  apart. 

A  laundry  well  fitted  out  with  three-section  laundry  tub,  electric  washer,  dryer  and 
electric  ironer  and  ironing  boards,  makes  a  very  useful  and  instructive  addition  to  the 
domestic  science  department.  While  few  of  the  students  in  this  department  will  be 
looking  for  a  diploma  in  the  art  of  "washer  woman,"  yet  a  complete  knowledge  of  soaps, 
alkalies,  washing,  bleaching,  blueing,  starching,  drying  and  ironing  of  cloths  and  fine 
fabrics  will  be  of  great  value  to  any  student.  In  fact  there  is  no  department  of  Home 
Economics  that  should  be  left  untouched  by  the  future  housekeeper.  The  school  board 
who  invests  a  few  hundred  dollars  in  the  completing  of  these  departments  may  be  making 
for  the  lasting  good  of  their  children.  The  thorough  training  of  a  young  wife  may  mean 
the  difference  between  a  happy  home  with  a  husband's  salary  wisely  spent  and  a  few 
dollars  saved  and  an  unhappy  home  where  salary  and  expenditure  do  not  meet,  while 
debt  comes  in  at  the  door  to  drive  love  and  happiness  out  of  the  window.  Train  your 
girls  to  be  expert  housekeepers  and  the  job  will  appeal  to  them.  Leave  them  to  grow 
up  without  such  training,  where  possibly  their  home  environments  are  not  of  the  best 
and  a  distaste  for  housekeeping  is  almost  sure  to  result.  With  a  distaste  for  housekeeping 
emplanted  in  the  girl's  mind,  almost  any  other  occupation  appears  more  attractive. 


54 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Seventeen 

Arrangement  and  Equipment  of  Science  Department 


THE  work  of  this  department  may  be  contained  in  one  large  room  in  the  small  consoli- 
dated school  where  the  same  equipment  may  be  used  by  all  classes  or  expanded  into 
individual  rooms  for  chemistry,  physics,  agriculture,  physiography,  biology,  botany, 
zoology,  etc.,  these  to  be  arranged  in  suite  with  one  lecture  room  between  each  two  lab- 
oratories. The.  elaboration  of  these  departments  will  be  governed  largely  by  the  com- 
pleteness of  courses  taught  and  the  funds  available.  For  a  combined  high  and  grade 
school  one  laboratory  for  each  two  hundred  students  will  conveniently  handle  the  work. 
In  the  small  school  of  200  students  an  equipment  for  twelve  to  sixteen  students  will  be 
large  enough.  The  laboratory  tables  may  be  combination  tables,  equipped  with  apparatus 
for  chemistry,  physics,  biology,  etc.,  including  sinks,  gas  connection,  electric  plugs,  hot 
and  cold  water  reagent  racks,  etc.    Cabinets  and  cases  for  the  single  laboratory  should 

be  of  large  size  accommo- 
dating agricultural,  seed 
drawers  and  binds,  chem- 
istry supplies,  botanical 
and  mineralogical  speci- 
mens, and  large  deep  re- 
ceptacles for  the  unwield- 
ly  physics  apparatus. 
Where  a  single  laboratory 
must  suffice,  this  room 
must  be  large  enough 
to  contain  at  least  six- 
teen table  arm  chairs 
and  the  instructor's  desk 
in  addition  to  the  sink 
tables.  Back  of  the  instructor's  desk  suspended  from  the  ceiling  a  white  stereopti- 
con  curtain  eight  feet  square  should  be  hung  on  a  coil  spring  curtain  rod  ready  to 
pull  down  at  a  moment's  notice  for  slide  lectures  on  physical  phenomena,  chemical 
change,  etc.,  that  can  be  most  thoroughly  and  interestingly  shown  by  means  of  micro- 
scopic projection  through  the  continued  use  of  the  microscope  and  stereopticon  lantern. 
A  dry  uninteresting  study  may  be  made  interesting  and  attractive  to  otherwise  indifferent 
students  by  this  means.  To  enlarge  the  tongue  of  an  ordinary  house  fly  until  it  appears 
to  be  eight  feet  in  length  on  the  canvas,  or  to  examine  the  tiny  polen  of  a  red  clover  blossom 
which  might  be  held  on  the  point  of  a  needle,  it  appears  too  large  to  fill  the  head  of  a  barrel, 
or  to  watch  the  growth  of  crystals  from  a  drop  of  bicloride  of  mercury,  carbinate  of  soda 
or  pomegranate  of  potash  in  solution  as  the  heat  from  the  lantern  drys  the  drop  on  the 
slide,  is  an  education  in  itself  that  holds  the  undivided  attention  of  the  pupil  as  nothing 
else  can  do.  To  accomplish  the  darkening  of  the  room,  black  curtains  are  provided,  in 
addition  to  the  regular  window  shades,  and  these  are  pulled  down  tight  and  the  edges 
covered  by  a  hinged  flap  that  excludes  all  light.  No  matter  whether  your  science  depart- 
ment is  confined  to  one  room  or  a  dozen,  be  sure  that  it  is  complete.  The  progress  of  the 
age  compels  the  schools  of  today  to  add  much  in  the  way  of  equipment  that  was  unheard 
of  when  our  parents  attended  school,  and  we  who  secured  our  education  twenty  years 
ago,  are  prone  to  overlook  the  necessity  of  adding  equipment  beyond  that  of  our  own 
knowledge,  in  consequence  many  schools  are  losing  efficiency  and  pupils  are  not  getting 
the  advantages  they  are  entitled  to.  We  are  living  in  an  age  of  progress  where  every 
thing  moves  quickly  and  to  have  successful  students  our  schools  must  keep  in  the  fore- 


T4<5«icuLTyeAL   Cawmet 


P-IG.  SO. 


■  Oectiom  • 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 55 

front  of  the  race.  While  this  is  being  written  in  February,  1917,  the  technical  magazines 
are  publishing  numerous  articles,  telling  of  the  marvelous  development  of  the  chemical 
plants,  the  dye  industry,  etc.,  in  the  United  States  brought  about  by  the  European  War. 
This  has  created  a  great  demand  for  scientifically  trained  men  which  reverts  back  to  the 
schools  with  a  demand  that  our  school  system  make  better  provision  for  the  training  of 
students  to  fit  them  for  their  places  in  these  vast  industries  where  greater  skill  and  thorough- 
ness will  be  more  and  more  in  demand.  Shall  our  schools  be  found  wanting  because 
school  boards  have  failed  in  their  duty  and  opportunity  to  fully  equip  their  science  depart- 
ments with  proper  equipment  and  teaching  force?  Most  of  the  trouble  has  been  due  to 
lack  of  investigation  by  school  boards,  and  I  cannot  urge  too  strongly  that  you  get  out 
and  compare  your  school  facilities  with  those  of  larger  cities,  known  to  be  progressive  and 
abreast  of  the  times,  but  to  continue  with  the  equipment  of  the  science  department.  I 
have  mentioned  the  work  contained  in  the  single  room  in  the  small  school.  For  the  school 
of  four  to  five  hundred  students,  the  science  work  can  be  satisfactorily  handled  in  a  suite 
of  three  rooms,  two  laboratories  and  a  large  lecture  room  between  them  with  raised  seats. 
With  this  arrangement  the  lecture  room  should  have  the  dark  curtains  and  stereopticon 
equipment.  All  chairs  should  be  fitted  with  tablet  arms  and  the  lecture  room  should  be 
quite  large  for  a  double  class  recitation  of  fifty  to  sixty  students. 

The  chemistry  room  should  be  fitted  with  sink  tables,  two  students  to  each  sink  and 
all  sink  table  tops  should  be  water  and  acid  proof.  Also  in  like  manner  the  floors  and 
wall  decorations  should  be  protected  from  acid  fumes  by  means  of  an  acid  proof  paint 
or  floor  covering.  The  mastic  floors  have  proven  quite  satisfactory  in  chemistry  labora- 
tories, owing  to  the  nature  of  the  mastic  composition  which  is  acid,  alkali  and  water 
proof. 

The  physics  laboratory  should  be  equipped  with  tables  for  two  students  each  with 
rods  and  cross  bars,  electrical  connections  and  gas  plugs.  The  instructor's  desk  should 
be  fitted  with  a  sink  in  addition  to  cross  bars,  electrical  connection  and  gas  plugs.  Adjoin- 
ing the  physics  laboratory,  a  dark  room  should  be  provided  for  photographic  development 
and  the  storage  of  sensitive  chemicals.  The  dark  room  should  have  a  large  stone  sink 
with  hot  and  cold  water,  also  white  and  colored  electric  light  bulb  attachments,  together 
with  ample  shelf  and  cupboard  space.  Owing  to  the  corrosive  action  of  chemicals  used 
in  laboratory  work,  the  plumbing  should  be  of  the  best.  All  waste  connection  should  be 
fitted  with  lead  pipe,  lead  non-syphon  traps  and  the  soil  pipes  should  be  lead  lined  to  a 
dilution  chamber  where  connection  is  made  to  sewer,  otherwise  the  connection  will  be 
soon  eaten  away  and  destroyed. 

The  agricultural  laboratory  should  be  equipped  much  the  same  as  chemistry  or  may 
use  the  same  room  and  equipment  if  the  size  of  the  school  does  not  warrant  two  laboratories. 
Where  possible,  a  separate  room  should  be  equipped  for  the  study  of  physiography,  botany, 
geology  and  mineralogy  with  a  delta  table  for  physical  geography  complete  with  clay 
bed  and  rain  spray.  Where  convenient  a  glass  conservatory  should  be  located  adjacent 
to  this  room  and  the  agricultural  laboratory  equipped  with  growing  beds  and  room  for 
plant  culture.  The  room  for  geology  and  minerology  should  be  well  equipped  with  speci- 
men cases  and  cabinets  well  indexed  and  catalogued.  The  stereopticon  with  microscopic 
projection  is  of  great  advantage  here,  especially  in  the  study  of  botany. 


56 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Eighteen 

The  Commercial  Department 


THIS  should  be  housed  in  three  or  more  rooms  if  the  size  of  the  school  will  justify. 
A  bookkeeping  room,  shorthand  room  and  typewriting  room,  preferably  with  clear 
glass  partitions  between  them. 

The  bookkeeping  room  should  be  the  most  elaborately  equipped  with  one  or  more 
banks,  and  business  houses  fitted  up  in  realistic  shape  to  handle  business  transactions. 

The  bank  screen  and  counters  should 
be  designed  as  a  bank  in  actual  prac- 
tice, with  cash  drawers,  supply  cab- 
inets, and  book  shelves.  The  busi- 
ness nouses  with  counters  and  railing, 
bookkeeper  and  cashier's  windows 
and  desks  as  in  actual  office  prac- 
tice. By  building  such  screens  and 
counters,  all  supplies  can  be  conveni- 
ently stored  in  them,  reducing  the 
need  for  cupboard  and  storage  space 
to  a  minimum. 

The  shorthand  room  should  be 
fitted  up  with  ordinary  desks  hav- 
ing writing  tops.  The  pedestal  type 
being  the  most  suitable,  owing  to  the 
ease  of  cleaning  the  floors  around  the 
desk. 

The  typewriting  room  should  be 
fitted  with  regular  office  typewriter 
desks  having  disappearing  tops  and 
drawers  at  least  on  one  side.  A  great 
many  schools  provide  the  ordinary 
typewriter  stand  but  the  desk  is  by 
far  the  best.  Machines  can  be  kept 
in  better  shape,  cleaner  and  more 
easily  operated  where  rigidly  secured 
to  the  disappearing  top  table  which 
can  be  closed  down  over  the  ma- 
chine, locking  it  in  where  machines 
can  not  be  tampered  with  when  they 
are  not  in  use. 

The  Commercial  department 
should  not  contain  less  than  1,000 
square   feet   of  floor  space  for  less 
Fig.  5i-A  than  20  pupils. 


Fig.  51 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


57 


Chapter  Nineteen 

The  Gymnasium  and  Auditorium 

NO  modern  equipped  school  can  be  without  a  gymnasium  or  some  adequate  room 
for  assembly  yet  there  is  much  discussion  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  each  by 
various  school  boards  and  to  have  or  not  to  have  a  gymnasium  has  caused  the 
failure  or  success  of  many  a  bond  issue  for  new  schools,  (usually  the  failure  of  the  issue), 
owing  to  the  belief  of  many  fossilized  tax  payers  that  a  gymnasium  is  an  unnecessary 
expense  and  a  useless  appendage  to  the  school. 

A  well-to-do  citizen  of  Belmond,  Iowa,  (a  town  of  1,200  inhabitants)  while  speaking 
to  the  writer  about  a  new  building  recently  erected  there,  criticized  the  building,  on 
the  grounds  that  there  was  too  much  play  and  not  enough  study,  why,  said  he,  "You 
couldn't  keep  the  kids  away  from  that  school  with  log  chains."  I  told  him  that  in  place 
of  a  criticism,  he  had  spoken  the  highest  recommendation  for  the  school  I  had  heard 
from  any  citizen  in  the  town.  We  will  admit  without  argument  that  our  modern  schools, 
if  successful,  are  fitted  with  some  very  interest  creating  features  that  our  old  schools 
of  20  years  ago  lacked.  We  are  making  them  attractive  to  the  pupils,  we  are  learning 
the  art  of  the  salesman  to  make  our  schools  appeal  to  the  student  as  the  salesman  at- 
tracts interest  to  his  wares.  We  want  every  boy  and  girl,  young  man  and  woman,  to 
like  the  school  and  become  so  interested  in  the  work  that  there  will  be  no  inducement 
more  appealing  to  their  inclination.  We  want  to  banish  forever  the  street  loafer  and 
we  are  in  a  fair  way  to  succeed  when  we  are  told  that  "You  can't  keep  the  kids  away  from 
the  school  with  log  chains,"  and  if  the  gymnasium  with  its  various  games  will  keep  one 
boy  off  the  streets  and  develop  a  man  that  one  man  is  good  interest  on  the  invest- 
ment no  matter  what  the  cost.  The  cost  problem,  however,  is  the  one  thing  that  is  usu- 
ally given  the  most  consideration  and  various  alternatives  may  be  considered. 

There  are  three  Alternatives.  First,  a  separate  auditorium,  separate  study  hall 
and  separate  gymnasium. 
Second,  a  combination  of 
auditorium  with  the  study 
hall  and  a  separate  gymna- 
sium. Third,  a  combina- 
tion of  auditorium  and  gym- 
nasium with  separate  study 
halls. 

The  first  arrangement  is 
by  far  the  best  and  most 
satisfactory  as  any  combi- 
nation of  departments  leads 
to  confliction  and  while  con- 
fliction  can  be  avoided,  it 
results  in  the  activities  of 
the  school  being  limited. 
Many  times  a  literary  pro- 
gram will  be  under  way 
when  the  practice  work  of 
a  class  play  requires  the  full 
use  of  the  stage  and  audi- 
torium while  the  athletic  in- 
structor is  using  the  gymna- 

,         ,       .°         ,  ™\.,       -  Stage  curtain  showing  courier  announcing  the  surrender  of  Lord  Cornwallis  at 

Slum,    developing    drills    lor      the  siege  of  Yorktown.     A  street  scene  in  Richmond,  Ky. 


Fig.  52 


58 


P1UBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Fig.  63 


some  character  or  folk  dance 
at  the  same  time.  Figures 
52  and  53  show  two  stage 
settings  ready  for  practice 
work. 

Figures  52  and  53  show 
interesting  scenes  for  a  small 
school  and  represents  the 
successful  efforts  of  the 
students  in  the  equipment 
of  the  stage  by  the  giving 
of  an  entertainment  to  de- 
fray the  cost.  The  pride  of 
achievement  was  well  worth 
the  efforts  expended  and  the 
school  board  who  does  not 
feel  like  spending  money  for 
such  equipment  need  not 
hesitate  to  leave  this  part 
of  the  equipment  to  the  stu- 
dents as  they  will  soon  sup- 
ply it  and  take  pleasure  in 
the  work  of  doing  it.  Figure  54  shows  a  gymnasium  in  the  same  school,  photographed 
one  evening  as  the  Basket  Ball  teams  of  that  and  a  neighboring  school  were  ready  to 
begin  play.  Note  the  absence  of  equipment.  Note  also  that  all  bolts  and  connections 
were  fastened  in  proper  location  in  the  ceiling  beams,  ready  for  installation  of  the  com- 
plete equipment  at  a  later  date.  The  students  in  this  instance  are  paying  for  the  equip- 
ment. Figure  55  illustrates  a  large  completely  equipped  gymnasium  with  a  running 
track. 

The  gymnaisum  should  have  every  consideration  from  the  school  board  as  fully 
as  any  part  of  the  school  program  and  no  half-way  measure  should  be  countenanced  if 
the  ultimate  good  of  the  students  is  taken  into  consideration.  Build  one  gymnasium 
for  each  500  pupils  if  possible;  where  funds  will  permit,  build  two  separate  gymnasiums 
for  boys  and  girls.     If  this  is  not  possible,  then  build  one  large  gymnasium  that  may 

be  divided  by  a  sliding  or 
rolling  partition  so  there 
will  be  a  practice  space  for 
boys  and  girls  with  a  large 
playing  space  for  class 
games,  etc.  The  double 
gymnasium  is  more  and 
more  seen  to  be  an  absolute 
necessity  as  we  see  the  need 
of  active  athletic  training  to 
assist  with  the  physical  de- 
velopment of  the  children. 
The  children  of  the  lower 
grades,  heretofore  have 
scarcely  been  allowed  the 
use  of  the  gymnasium  and 
they  are  the  ones  who  need 
it  the  most.  We  will  grant 
that  a  strong,  healthy  ath- 
letic football  or  basket  ball 
player  will  derive  much 
Fig.  64  pleasure  from  the  use  of  the 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


59 


■  •  'LWL      J  o    il 

HP^*",!™^p™" 

■ 

- 

Fig.  55 


gymnasium  and  grow 
healthier  but  the  weak,  an- 
aemic child,  who  lacks  phy- 
sical development,  who  is 
stoop  shouldered  and  thin 
chested,  perhaps  with  tuber- 
cular tendencies,  is  the  one 
we  want  to  take  into  the 
gymnasium  and  give  him  a 
chance  for  development  to 
overcome  his  anaemic  and 
weakened  condition,  turning 
him  out  into  a  strong,  vigor- 
ous student,  strengthened 
in  body  and  mind.  Better 
far,  that  a  few  dollars  be 
spent  in  a  gymnasium  than 
many  dollars  at  the  corner 
drug  store  and  family  doc- 
tors office,  or  perhaps,  at 
the  undertakers. 

Scientific  investigation  has  led  to  the  unanimous  agreement  that  mental  training 
depends  largely  on  physical  health,  that  a  normal  development  of  the  mind  accompanies 
a  normal  development  of  the  body.  This  being  true,  the  gymnasium  has  just  as  much 
right  and  place  in  the  school  building  as  the  study  hall  or  class  room,  and  many  healthy 
men  and  women,  owe  their  present  health  and  vigor  to  the  physical  development  in  the 
school  gymnasium.  Those  who  object  to  the  gymnasium,  do  so  from  ignorance,  or  from 
selfish  indifference.  No  more  pitiable  or  discouraging  sight  can  be  imagined  than  to 
see  an  old,  retired  wealthy  tax  payer  going  to  the  polls  to  vote  down  a  bond  issue  for 
badly  needed  schools,  and  a  great  many  of  them  voting  against  an  issue  because  the 
gymnasium  or  some  modern  feature  has  been  added  that  they  knew  nothing  about  20 
years  ago  when  they  attended  the  one  room  school  back  on  the  farm.  They  do  not  know 
nor  will  they  believe  that  student  mortality  has  decreased  50%  in  30  years  because  of 
improved  conditions, 
training  and  physical  de- 
velopment, to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  physically 
weak  and  backward  stu- 
dent. The  old  shop  worn 
argument  that  children 
can  get  exercise  enough 
at  home,  is  a  tiresome  ar- 
gument to  answer.  Yes, 
they  may  get  exercise  at 
home,  and  it  may  be  a 
type  of  exercise  that  is 
harmful  to  their  growth. 
The  writer  at  the  age  of 
12,  cut,  split  and  sawed 
wood,  for  exercise,  and 
the  stooped  shoulders 
that  resulted,  took  sev- 
eral months  in  a  gymna- 
sium to  iron  out.  Hoe- 
ing garden,  or  other  sim- 
ilar form  of  exercise  ac-  Fig.  55-a 


60 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Fig.  56 


quired  at  home,  all  tend  to 
develop  the  muscles  of  the 
arms,  back  and  legs,  in  fact, 
they  tend  toward  abnormal 
development,  (unless  varied 
by  other  totally  different 
forms  of  exercise)  the  worst 
crime  against  childhood. 
Many  a  boy  has  been 
thrashed  for  taking  exercise 
that  did  him  lots  of  good. 
The  writer  remembers 
climbing  a  cherry  tree  once, 
a  fine  healthy  exercise,  but, 
of  course,  the  thrashing 
was  not  for  climbing  the 
tree.  The  average  small 
town  or  country  boy  will 
secure  lots  of  exercise  if 
given  the  opportunity  and 
he  would  grow  to  manhood 
without  ever  seeing  a  gym- 
nasium, but  what  about  the  boy  who  lives  in  the  congested  city,  who  must  roam  the  streets 
and  tramp  the  sidewalks,  selling  papers  for  exercise,  who  hasn't  the  freedom  of  20  years 
ago.  How  about  the  little  fellow  who  most  needs  the  exercise,  who  is  anaemic,  listless  and 
/  too  tired  to  properly  exercise.  These  must  be  provided  for  and  as  this  country  of  ours 
becomes  more  and  more  crowded,  we  will  be  compelled  to  provide  more  and  more  space 
in  our  schools  for  physical  training.  School  hours  are  short  and  attendance  large  and 
there  must  be  room  for  all,  so  let  us  provide  an  adequate  space  to  keep  in  line  with  the 
broad  educational  policy  of  the  present  age,  and  let  us  equip  the  gymnasium  with  all 
the  apparatus  needed  for  full  normal  exercise  and  development  of  every  muscle  in  the 
child's  body  and  you  will  be  abundantly  repaid  in  the  decreasing  percentage  of  sickness 
and  the  corresponding  increase  in  your  student  efficiency.  As  to  the  equipment,  size 
and  shape  of  gymnasium,  we  might  fill  several  pages  on  this  subject  but  would  rather 

refer  you  to  A.  G.  Spalding 
&  Bros,  catalogue,  "Effi- 
cient apparatus  for  the 
Gymnasium,"  which  so 
thoroughly  covers  the  sub- 
ject, that  no  comment  is 
necessary. 

Figures  56-57  and  58  il- 
lustrate three  views  in  Aud- 
itoriums seated  with  opera 
chairs  for  regularly  assem- 
bly but  not  as  study  halls. 
However,  15%  of  the  opera 
chairs  should  be  fitted  with 
adjustable  tablet  arms  for 
students  in  taking  notes  on 
lectures,  debates,  etc.  If 
the  school  is  a  combined 
Grade  and  High  School  the 
assembly  should  be  large 
enough  to  seat  the  entire 
Fig.  67  school.    This  will  be  ample 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


61 


Jig.  68 


for  the  average  community  as  the 
varied  activities  of  such  a  school  will 
not  require  the  Grades  and  High 
School  work  to  be  carried  on  at  the 
same  time,  consequently  there  will 
be  ample  room  for  the  public  in  ad- 
dition to  the  student  attendance. 
If  the  building  is  exclusively  a  High 
School  the  assembly  should  seat  one 
and  one-half  times  the  High  School 
capacity,  if  the  general  public  are  to 
be  seated  at  class  plays,  entertain- 
ments, commencement  exercises,  etc. 

Country  and  City  Schools  alike, 
need  the  assembly  room  to  better 
consolidate  the  community,  district, 
or  city  ward.  As  the  school  should 
properly  be  a  civic  center,  the 
meeting  place  for  the  people,  it  must  have  the  assembly,  and  one  that  is  adequate  for 
any  and  all  public  gatherings. 

The  cafeteria  has  filled  one  place  in  the  social  side  of  the  school;  the  assembly 
must  fill  another  to  complete  the  work,  with  adequate  equipment  the  social  center  will 
grow  in  popularity,  and  our  children  will  correspondingly  receive  more  attention  as  we 
visit  the  school  and  get  better  acquainted  with  them. 

We  may  in  some  instances  combine  the  study  hall  and  assembly  with  a  view  to  econ- 
omizing. However,  it  is  not  a  practice  to  be  recommended  except  in  small  schools  of 
300  students  or  less.  A  study  hall  when  fitted  up  with  stage  and  adequate  seating  for 
assembly  purposes,  is  of  necessity  much  larger  than  need  be  as  a  study  hall  and  as  an 
auditorium,  the  room  size  is  wasted  owing  to  the  study  desks  which  will  not  permit  of 
close  seating  as  can  be  secured  with  opera  chairs.  For  better  that  you  build  a  small  over- 
flow study  hall  and  separate  assembly  where  lectures  may  be  carried  on  without  inter- 
ference with  the  study  periods.  This  arrangement  may  entail  a  somewhat  larger  expendi- 
ture but  the  advantage  gained  will  be  of  inestimable  value  for  the  efficiency  of  the  school 
work  and  the  elimination  of  the  confusion,  incident  to  the  special  seating  of  the  study 
room  to  prepare  for  lectures  combined  with  the  fact  that  all  students  in  the  study  hall 
will  be  stopped  from  work  while  a  lecture  is  in  progress,  regardless  of  its  application 
to  their  work.  True, 
they  may  be  benefited 
by  it  but  it  may  be  ap- 
plicable  to  advanced 
work  and  be  beyond 
them,  thus  their  time 
is  lost. 

The  assembly  seat- 
ed with  opera  chairs  is 
always  ready  for  use 
without  confusion  or 
loss  of  time  and  makes 
for  better  regulation  of 
the  school  work. 

The  oft  suggested 
combination  of  assem- 
bly room  and  gymna- 
sium while  it  is  better 
than  none  is  a  compro- 
mise and  cannot  be  rec-  Fig.  68-a 


62 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

ommended,  except  as  a  last  resort.  The  ideal  gymnasium  is  equipped  with  all  manner 
of  apparatus,  suspended  from  ceilings  and  walls  and  cannot  be  made  attractive  or  con- 
venient for  assembly  purposes.  Each  time  the  gymnasium  is  used  for  assembly  purposes 
the  floor  must  be  cleared,  collapsible  chairs  brought  out  on  the  floor  and  all  gymnasium 
apparatus  cleared  off,  and  all  work  stopped  in  the  gymnasium  during  this  period.  While 
this  objection  may  not  be  serious  owing  to  the  fact  that  changes  of  this  kind  can  be  made 
quickly,  yet  the  fact  remains  that  a  well  appointed  gymnasium  cannot  be  suitable  for  as- 
sembly room  purposes  even  if  a  stage  is  built  in  (as  quite  often  is  done) .  The  school  may 
have  a  class  play  in  prospect  where  the  stage  should  be  in  use  at  a  time  when  practice 
games  are  in  progress  on  the  gym  floor,  this  means  conflict  and  resultant  confusion  in  the 
school  work.  In  an  active  school  organization  there  is  scarcely  a  period  in  the  day  that 
the  gymnasium  is  idle  and  the  assembly  is  in  use  three  to  four  periods  a  day  by  elecution 
and  music  classes,  practice  work,  etc. 

In  the  school,  lacking  the  separate  features,  students  must  be  kept  longer  hours, 
practice  when  it  does  not  conflict  with  other  regular  periods  and  there  is  not  the  flexi- 
bility in  the  school  organization  that  could  be  desired.  It  means  that  your  school  ma- 
chinery is  inadequate  for  the  proper  work,  that  your  teacher's  and  student's  tasks  are 
harder  ones  and  the  efficiency  of  your  school  is  that  much  reduced.  So,  after  consider- 
ing the  combinations  that  may  be  made  they  do  not  appear  attractive  or  feasible  for 
economic  work  and  the  school  board  will  best  serve  the  interests  of  the  community 
by  building  each  department  for  its  particular  work  and  avoid  the  confusion  resulting 
from  combinations. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS  63 


Chapter  Twenty 

The  Administration  Department 


YE  old  time  school"  sometimes  contained  an  office  for  the  master,  more  often  a 
desk  with  a  tough  hickory  switch  as  additional  administration? — today,  however, 
the  administration  department  of  a  school  when  properly  expanded  contains  many 
features  that  make  for  the  discipline,  health  and  mental  welfare  of  the  pupil.  In  years 
gone  by  when  "Readin,  writin  and  rithmetic"  was  taught  to  the  tune  of  a  hickory  stick, 
it  was  a  case  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  and  the  strong  healthy  student  who  bad  the 
stamina  to  overcome  conditions  derived  the  most  benefit  from  his  school  work;  others, 
whose  determination  and  strength  of  will  forced  them  through  regardless  of  conditions, 
secured  their  education  ofttimes  at  the  expense  of  health  and  physical  well  being.  The 
balance  were  either  dubbed  lazy,  stupid  or  dull,  and  still  others  were  said  to  be  mentally 
defective  or  imbicile.  In  consequence,  the  percentage  of  those  who  were  properly  edu- 
cated was  low  compared  to  present  day  opportunities. 

Science  and  medical  skill  has  stepped  in  and  taken  a  hand  in  the  administration  of 
our  modern  schools,  informing  "Ye  old  schools  master"  that  yon  stupid  child  needs  medi- 
cal examination,  more  than  he  needs  the  hickory  stick.  Perhaps  it  is  a  mere  trifle — like 
near  sightedness  or  compound  astigmatism  that  an  oculist  can  overcome  in  a  week's 
time  and  by  his  magic  turn  the  stupid  child  into  the  class  leader.  The  writer  knows 
of  an  instance  twenty-two  years  ago  when  a  little  girl  of  twelve,  one  day  put  on  her  grand- 
mother's glasses  and  looked  out  at  the  trees  in  a  woods  some  sixty  feet  distant  from  the 
door  where  she  was  standing,  why  mother!  said  she,  I  can  see  the  dogwood  blossoms 
and  the  leaves  on  the  trees  distinctly  through  grandmother's  glasses.  Why  can't  you  see 
them  without  glasses,  her  mother  asked.  No,  said  the  little  girl,  they  look  like  a  big 
blur.  The  little  girl  was  taken  to  an  oculist  and  fitted  with  glasses  and  it  was  found 
that  her  grandmother's  glasses  exactly  fitted  her,  and  that  little  girl  became  a  leader 
in  college,  valedictorian  of  her  class,  and  a  speaker  who  could  sway  crowds,  and  bring 
tears  to  the  eyes  of  her  hearers.  All  because  of  a  $7.50  pair  of  glasses.  If,  by  accident, 
she  had  not  found  her  need  of  glasses  her  school  life  might  have  been  quite  different. 
However,  it  is  just  accidents  such  as  this  that  has  taught  us  the  need  of  enlarged  admin- 
istration departments  where  the  oculist  the  dentist  and  the  physician  may  have  their 
room  set  apart  for  examination  of  every  pupil,  where  the  little  ones  in  the  kindergarten 
class  may  be  examined  and  prescribed  for,  their  defects  corrected  and  their  chance  in 
the  competition  of  life  made  equal  with  their  schoolmates. 

You,  gentlemen  of  the  school  board  may  be  responsible,  by  neglect  of  this  important 
part  of  your  school,  for  a  mental  defective  becoming  a  criminal,  whose  whole  life  and 
habits  might  be  changed  by  a  medical  examination  locating  the  necessity  for  an  opera- 
tion that  would  remove  the  trouble,  leaving  a  healthy  mind  freed  from  disease.  Wake 
up  to  your  duty,  gentlemen,  and  if  you  think  the  writer  is  visionary,  go  to  your  nearest 
specialist  for  verification  and  he  will  tell  you  what  to  do.  By  all  means  make  your  ad- 
ministrative department  an  institution  in  the  school  that  will  search  out  and  remedy 
conditions  and  causes,  until  every  pupil  in  the  school  has  every  opportunity  possible  for 
him  to  have. 

The  modern  school  administrative  department  should  include  the  Superintendent's 
office,  Reception  and  Board  rooms,  Secretary's  office,  a  large  vault  for  records,  and  ade- 
quate space  and  fittings  for  medical  examiner,  Oculist,  Dentist,  Nurse  and  Teachers, 
also  pupils  rest  rooms,  these  should  be  separate  rooms  with  special  equipment  if  the  school 
is  large  and  may  have  several  in  one  room  if  the  school  is  small. 

The  Superintendent's  office  should  be  large  well  lighted,  with  private  toilet  and  cloak 
room  adjoining.     This  room  should  be  equipped  with  either  electric  bell  signal  system 


64 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


to  all  rooms  in  the  building  or  intercommunicating  telephone  system,  the  latter  pre- 
ferred. The  master  clock  and  program  instrument  should  be  located  here  as  should  also 
the  record  vault. 


C      O    42,    42.     r    D    O    42- 


I_  I    t>  «_-A  42.  Y 


oa 

o  a 

00 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

00 
00 
00 
00 
0  0 
00 


o 
o 
o 
o 
o 
o 


'OAVALLOGHOOL-ADMIrilvSTOATIOM-  D&FACTMtriT- 

FlGURfc  59 


Where  possible,  the  library  should  be  adjacent  to  the  office  on  one  side  with  the 
board  room  and  secretary's  room  on  the  other.  The  average  school  may  combine  the 
superintendent's  reception  room  and  board  room  in  one  with  a  secretary's  desk  and 
file  cabinet  included ;  however,  this  room  should  be  quite  large,  if  this  is  done.  The  board 
room  should  be  fitted  up  with  table,  not  less  than  four  foot  by  eight  foot,  at  least  twelve 
chairs  and  secretary's  desk  and  chair.  The  secretary's  need  for  an  office  depends  largely 
on  the  service  rendered.  In  the  small  school  there  is  little  need  for  a  separate  office,  but 
the  city  of  8,000  or  more  inhabitants  having  several  schools  to  look  after  needs  a  paid 
secretary  whose  entire  time  is  devoted  to  the  school  work  and  a  separate  room  becomes 
necessary.  This  room  should  be  adjacent  to  superintendent's  office,  board  room  and 
record  vault,  and  be  equipped  as  necessity  demands. 

The  Medical  Examiner's  room  may  be  a  small,  cheerful  room,  with  abundance  of 
light.  It  should  be  equipped  with  a  regular  physician's  examination  table,  a  small  dress- 
ing room  and  dark  room.  The  dark  room  should  have  a  vitreous  china  sink,  hot  and  cold 
water  connection  and  drain  board.  This  dark  room  should  be  equipped  with  an  emer- 
gency drug  supply,  a  first  aid  outfit,  and  be  fitted  with  a  lock  with  keys,  only  in  the  hands 
of  the  physicians,  nurse  and  superintendent.  The  medical  examiner's  room  may  also 
serve  as  the  oculists,  dentists  and  nurses  room  in  the  small  school  by  the  addition  of 
a  dentist's  chair,  and  the  oculist's  apparatus  in  the  dark  room  which  must  be  larger  if 
this  is  done  than  would  be  necessary  if  used  for  the  medical  examiner  alone.  The  oculist's 
room  must  be  at  least  twenty  feet  long  and  the  windows  must  have  dark  curtains,  fitted 
to  exclude  all  light.  Baseboard  outlets  for  electrical  apparatus  connection  should  be 
provided  for  both  dentist  and  oculist  and  a  one  and  one-half  inch  drain  connection  must 
be  run  to  dentist's  chair.  The  nurses  room,  rest  room  and  teachers  room  should  each 
be  provided  with  couch,  easy  chair,  writing  table,  lavatory  (and  where  possible) ,  separate 
toilet  facilities.  These  rooms  should  be  decorated  in  a  cheerful  manner,  windows  sup- 
plied with  lace  curtains,  walls  with  good  pictures,  and  floor  covered  with  rugs.  These 
rooms  must  present  a  cheerful,  quiet,  restful,  appearance,  to  fulfill  their  purpose. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


65 


Education  is  not  alone  the  cramming  of  the  mind  with  facts  and  figures  and  the 
school  by  its  equipment,  its  decoration,  its  library  and  pictures  should  be  an  educational 
object  lesson,  setting  an  ideal  for  the  student  that  would  benefit  him  all  through  life, 
consequently  care  and  attention  must  be  given  to  each  individual  department.  The 
administration,  because  of  its  nature,  must  be  thoughtfully  planned  to  avoid  setting 
up  a  fear  and  dread  in  the  minds  of  young  pupils,  and  those  in  charge  should  be  selected 
carefully  for  their  intimate  knowledge  of  children  and  child  life. 


OtcoND-     -rL.oo.a_-     -Plam- 


Before  closing  we  should  mention  the  large  City  Administration  Department 
which  will  be  an  elaboration  of  the  different  departments  mentioned  before.  If  the  school 
is  to  operate  successfully  without  friction  and  with  efficiency,  the  City  Administration 
Department  should  be  installed  in  a  building  separate  from  the  schools  and  from  the 
other  City  management  and  with  a  systematically  organized  business  organization  well 
equipped  to  handle  all  the  various  branches  of  the  school  work.  Practically  all  large 
cities  have  erected  a  large  administration  building  in  which  all  the  various  departments 
can  be  housed  in  order  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  operating  expense  incident  to  the 
various  school  activities.  See  cuts  (Fig.  60  and  61)  which  illustrates  a  plan  for  a  City 
Administration  Department.  Note  the  difference  between  that  and  figure  59  which  shows 
an  Administration  Department  housed  in  a  scoool  building  accommodating  1,000  pupils. 


66 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Twenty-one 

Planning  a  School  Building 

FIRST— THE  GRADE  SCHOOL 

SOME  few  years  ago  architects  assumed  the  planning  of  a  Grade  School  building  to  be 
a  very  simple  thing  and  included  only  such  grade  rooms  as  were  needed  with  an 
additional  room  for  the  principal  and  superintendent.  Toilets  were  known  by  an 
entirely  different  name  and  were  reached  via  the  back  door  of  the  school  somewhere  near 
the  rear  of  the  school  grounds.  The  more  progressive  schools  usually  had  a  dark,  gloomy 
basement  for  play  room  space,  and  that  about  covered  the  grade  school  requirements. 
Today  more  attention  is  being  given  to  the  grade  school  than  to  the  other  departments 
of  the  public  schools,  and  rightly  so,  as  the  pupils  who  attend  the  grade  school  are  in  the 
formative  period  of  life  when  outside  influences  most  seriously  effect  their  mental  and 
physical  well  being.  Knowing  this  it  is  the  imperative  duty  of  school  boards  and  architects 
to  provide  every  improvement  in  the  grade  school  that  will  conserve  the  health,  eyesight, 
and  mentality  of  the  young  pupils. 

The  kindergarten  should  be  a  large,  well  lighted  room  with  a  small  raised  platform  at 
one  end,  individual  toilets  built  in  and  cloak  rooms  adjoining  for  boys  and  girls.  A  large 
wood  burning  fireplace  built  in  on  the  long  side  of  the  room  is  an  added  feature  to  be  rec- 
ommended. Owing  to  the  inability  of  kindergarten  pupils  to  concentrate  their  attention 
for  any  length  of  time,  it  is  most  essential  that  a  large  variety  of  equipment  be  secured 
to  enable  the  teacher  to  keep  the  children  constantly  occupied.  The  writer  recently 
visited  a  kindergarten  and  first  grade  department  where  the  equipment  included  a  piano, 
phonograph,  a  cabinet  containing  drawers  filled  with  fifty  different  games,  colored  charts 
and  maps  galore,  a  moving  picture  machine  with  curtain,  sand  tables,  a  slide,  giant  stride 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


67 


a  complete  electric  railroad  with  125  feet  of  double  track,  five  depots,  two  passenger 
trains,  three  freight  trains,  switches,  side  tracks,  two  tunnels  and  a  wrecking  car,  also  a 
doll  cabinet  and  fifty  dolls,  and  the  usual  equipment  of  chairs,  painted  circles  and  dia- 
monds on  the  floor,  teacher's  desk  with  chair  and  three  visitors  chairs.  The  writer  was 
present  when  the  embryo  railroaders  were  busily  engaged  in  the  operation  of  their  miniature 
railroad  and  it  surely  was  an  interesting  sight  and  an  instructive  one  as  well.  The  teacher 
of  this  particular  class,  with  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  psychology  of  child  life,  had 
organized  the  class  into  a  complete  railroad  organization  from  railroad  president  on  down 
the  line  to  the  humble  switchman,  and  the  organization  of  five,  six  and  seven-year-olds 
exhibited  all  the  importance  their  seniors  might  have  affected.  This  was  play  with  the 
advantage  of  education;  supervised  play,  where  each  pupil  had  his  place  subservient  to 
the  authority  of  the  official  just  over  him  and  the  seven-year-old  railroad  president  trans- 
acted his  business  with  the  gravity 
of  a  sage  as  he  sat  at  his  desk  in 
one  end  of  the  room  at  the  termi- 
nal headquarters.  There  was  alert- 
ness and  animation  depicted  in  the 
faces  of  every  one  of  these  young 
kindergartners,  and  I  thought, 
"What  a  wonderful  difference  in 
our  treatment  of  children  and  the 
educational  problem  over  the 
methods  of  our  forefathers."  There 
was  no  quarreling  among  these 
youngsters,  no  fretful  squalling,  no 
sulky  child.  Truly  this  is  advanced 
education. 

FIRST  AND  SECOND  GRADES 

These  grades  being  just  a 
step  above  the  kindergarten 
should  contain  some  of  the  inter- 
esting features  of  the  kindergarten  in  order  that  the  change  from  much  play  to  study 
will  not  be  too  marked.  In  fact,  play  should  form  a  part  of  every  grade  and  the  high 
school,  changed  to  meet  the  ever  quickening  intelligence  of  the  student.  Sand  tables 
and  some  play  apparatus  should  be  included  in  the  first  and  second  grade  rooms,  movable 
chairs  should  be  used,  the  floor  should  be  marked  off  with  figures  for  drill  and  play.  Con- 
siderable blackboard  space  should  be  provided,  with  space  above  15"  or  more  in  width, 
covered  with  burlap  or  cork  carpet,  capped  with  a  wide  plate  rail  upon  which  various 
articles  may  be  placed.  Individual  toilets  and  cloak  rooms,  separate  for  boys  and  girls, 
should  be  included. 

UPPER  GRADES 

From  the  third  grade  up  to  the  junior  department,  the  rooms  should  be  similar, 
planned  not  to  exceed  forty  pupils  with  wardrobes,  lockers  or  cloak  rooms  as  preferred. 
(See  chapter  24.)  The  third  and  fourth  grades  may  have  individual  toilets  or  they  may 
use  the  general  toilets.  There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  the  use  of  the  individual 
toilet  for  grades  and  it  has  resolved  itself  into  a  question  of  individual  opinion  about 
child  modesty  and  the  mingling  of  young  children  with  older  students  in  a  general  toilet 
room. 

In  consequence,  it  may  be  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  use  her  discretion  as  to  which 
pupils  in  the  room  should  be  permitted  to  pass  out  and  go  to  the  general  toilet  room,  or 
which  should  use  the  individual  toilet  in  connection  with  the  room,  as  it  should  always 
be  the  aim  of  every  school  to  preserve  the  fine  sensibilities  and  clean,  wholesome  modesty 
of  all  pupils. 


68 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Above  the  sixth  grade  the  burlap  strip  need  not  be  included  over  the  black  board  space, 
but  as  hereinbefore  mentioned  every -available  inch  of  blackboard  space  should  be  utilized 
in  the  grade  rooms  as  there  are  times  when  every  inch  of  space  may  be  needed. 

In  planning  a  building  the  upper  grade  rooms  should  be  placed  convenient  to  such 
vocational  departments  as  the  size  of  the  school  will  warrant,  as  manual  training  and 
domestic  science  can  be  taught  to  great  advantage,  even  as  early  as  the  fourth  and  fifth 
grades.  Many  fourth  grade  pupils  adapt  themselves  quickly  to  manual  training,  or 
domestic  science  work  and  enjoy  it. 

A  school  board  should  carefully  consider  the  advisability  of  including  a  physical 
training  department  in  connection  with  the  grade  building,  providing  there  the  opportu- 
nities for  physical  development  which  usually  have  been  denied  the  younger  pupils.  At 
least  a  large  play  room  space  with  equipment  should  be  included  for  boys  and  girls,  even 
if  a  gymnasium  is  found  to  be  too  expensive. 

JUNIOR  SCHOOL 

There  has  been  so  much  discussion  of  the  six  and  six  plan,  seventh  and  eighth  grade 
combinations  and  the  junior  high  school,  that  I  will  not  take  up  the  discussion  further 
than  to  urge  that  provision  be  made  in  the  school  program  to  accommodate  an  intermediate 
assembly  and  class  room  between  the  grades  and  the  high  school  to  divide  the  work  and 
the  pupils.  This  division  may  be  made  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  individual  city 
or  town  and  may  differ  widely  according  to  conditions.  As  a  means  of  relieving  a  con- 
gested condition  in  an  over-crowded  high  school  or  grade  school,  a  separate  junior  school 
building  or  buildings  will  satisfactorily  relieve  conditions  and  improve  the  school  system. 

Conditions  may  arise  requiring  the  erection  of  a  combined  grade  and  junior  school  in 
towns  where  adequate  high  school  facilities  have  already  been  provided.  In  this  event 
plans  should  be  carefully  studied  with  a  view  to  the  vocational  studies  and  their  access- 
ability  for  use  by  the  upper  grade  and  junior  pupils.  Available  funds  and  the  size  of  the 
school  may  prohibit  the  installation  of  separate  departmental  rooms  and  equipment; 
teachers  and  students  may  be  required  to  go  from  the  grade  and  junior  school  to  the  high 
school  building  where  these  studies  are  taught.  In  this  event  the  distance  pupils  will  be 
required  to  travel  must  be  carefully  considered  And  the  building  located  accordingly. 


AftC-ftn'ft.CT 


St.-  Pa  ol,  -Minn 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 69 

Where  possible,  however,  it  pays  to  install  departmental  work  for  the  upper  grades  and 
junior  school,  separate  from  the  high  school  and  adjacent  to  the  grade  and  junior  building, 
even  if  it  is  found  necessary  for  the  same  teachers  to  handle  the  work  as  would  be  neces- 
sary in  the  smaller  schools. 

Where  a  new  building  can  combine  the  junior  department  with  a  high  school  or  where 
the  entire  school  is  housed  in  one  building  including  grades,  junior  and  high  school,  the 
departmental  problem  is  simplified. 

A  city  of  6,000  inhabitants  erected  a  high  school  building  a  few  years  ago  which 
proved  to  be  inadequate,  after  a  few  years'  use,  to  accommodate  the  four  years  of  high 
school  work,  and  one  of  the  grade  school  buildings  being  condemned,  it  was  proposed  to 
build  a  new  building.    The  architect  found  the  following  conditions  existing: 

A  high  school  building  inadequate  for  the  work ;  a  domestic  science  department  in  the 
high  school  building  adequate  for  the  whole  school;  a  manual  training  department  only 
half  large  enough.  No  auditorium  for  assembly  purposes;  no  gymnasium,  and  a  cramped 
and  unbalanced  condition  generally.  The  problem  was  solved  by  planning  a  large  grade 
and  junior  school  building  on  a  site  one  block  removed  from  the  high  school  grounds,  the 
new  building  accommodating  kindergarten,  grades  and  junior  assembly  with  class  rooms 
averaging  one  for  every  thirty  pupils,  a  double  gymnasium  for  boys  and  girls,  a  swimming 
pool,  a  shower  and  locker  room  to  accommodate  the  complete  grades,  junior  and  high 
school,  and  an  auditorium  seating  2,000  or  one-third  the  total  population  of  the  entire 
city;  this  building  being  planned  with  wings  for  future  extension,  having  in  view  the 
growth  of  the  school.  The  freshman  class  was  taken  from  the  high  school  to  the  grade 
and  junior  building,  relieving  conjestion  in  the  high  school  building.  Departmental 
work  of  the  high  school  was  enlarged  to  accommodate  the  work  of  the  upper  grades  and 
junior  school  and  a  well  balanced  and  more  workable  system  resulted. 

The  division  of  the  school  work  into  grades,  junior  school  and  senior  high  school  is 
becoming  quite  popular  and  this  arrangement  is  shown  in  most  of  the  plans  illustrated. 

THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

This  problem  is  one  that  cannot  be  standardized  to  any  such  an  extent  as  the  grade 
schools  and  each  individual  problem  must  be  carefully  studied  and  developed.  It  is  not 
a  problem  of  a  certain  number  of  classes,  but  a  complex  problem  of  intermediate  education 
covering  literature,  fine  arts,  vocational  subjects,  and  the  training  necessary  to  the  progress 
of  the  present  age,  and  the  city  high  school  must  be  designed  with  a  much  different  course 
of  study  than  would  be  fitting  for  the  country  school;  this  is  especially  so  if  we  attempt 
to  use  the  schools  as  a  means  to  encourage  certain  lines  of  endeavor. 

Serious  consideration  must  be  given  to  the  planning  of  the  modern  high  school,  owing 
to  the  broad  field  of  education  it  has  entered.  The  wide  range  of  subjects  taught,  and  the 
need  of  equipment  and  space  for  teaching  each  course,  makes  the  planning  of  the  high 
school  a  very  interesting  subject;  in  fact,  each  new  building  becomes  a  separate  and 
distinct  problem  requiring  special  planning  and  consideration.  It  is  gratifying  to  note 
that  architects  are  awakening  to  the  possibilities  presented  by  the  modern  high  school 
plant,  and  are  developing  more  interesting  buildings  as  they  study  the  problem  carefully, 
giving  it  the  thought  and  attention  it  deserves. 

The  planning  of  the  modern  high  school  takes  into  consideration  many  things  that 
were  some  years  ago  either  unknown  or  considered  as  non-essential,  and  while  there  is 
still  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  absolute  essentials  of  a  complete  high  school, 
yet  there  are  enough  fundamental  requirements  to  make  it  possible  to  plan  with  reason- 
able certainty  as  to  the  results.  These  schools  have  been  for  years,  and  will  be  for  years 
to  come,  in  a  transitional  stage  and  the  successful  plan  is  one  which  is  designed  with  a 
prophetic  insight  into  the  future  growth  of  the  school  and  provides  for  a  logical  expansion 
of  the  school  plant. 

Some  few  years  ago  the  high  school  was  generally  understood  to  mean  one  building 
housing  study  hall,  class  rooms,  manual  training,  domestic  science,  literature,  art,  sciences, 
agriculture,  etc.,  under  one  roof.  Now  with  a  broad  educational  program  which  includes 
all  these  departments  and  a  department  for  physical  development,  supervised  play  and 


70      PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

athletics,  together  with  other  new  and  interesting  features  all  designed  to  improve  the 
mental,  moral,  and  physical  nature  of  the  student,  the  old  plan  becomes  unwieldly  and 
inadequate.  The  close  juxtaposition  of  totally  unlike  departments,  as  for  instance  the 
forge  and  machine  shop  in  the  basement  directly  below  a  class  room,  one  unavoidably 
noisy  and  annoying  to  the  other,  causes  confliction  and  much  objection.  In  fact  all  the 
manual  training  and  gymnasium  work  is  of  a  nature  that  should  be  isolated.  With  ath- 
letics as  a  permanent  part  of  the  high  school  problem,  and  the  introduction  of  inter- 
scholastic  games  as  a  means  of  developing  school  spirit  and  student  enthusiasm,  the 
athletic  field  with  grand  stand  and  bleachers  becomes  a  necessity,  also  large  observation 
space  becomes  necessary  in  the  gymnasium  for  the  benefit  of  the  public;  in  consequence 
more  acreage  is  necessary  to  provide  for  this  expansion  and  the  trend  of  opinion  is  growing 
in  favor  of  ten,  twelve  and  fifteen-acre  tracts  for  the  modern  high  school  of  1000  to  1500 
pupils,  and  more  in  proportion  to  the  expansion  of  the  school,  so  with  their  growing 
condition  planning  must  change  to  meet  it.  As  manual  training  takes  on  the  nature  of 
full  grown  shops,  this  department  should  be  isolated  in  a  separate  unit  or  wing,  gym- 
nasium, natatorium,  showers,  etc.,  may  be  disposed  of  in  the  same  way,  preferably  adja- 
cent to  the  athletic  field. 

The  high  school  auditorium  should  be  situated  convenient  for  the  public,  on  a  ground 
floor  location  with  few  entrance  steps.  Heating  plant  and  administration  department 
should  be  centrally  located  and  the  rest  of  the  school  should  be  situated  to  eliminate  all 
unnecessary  travel  for  pupils  and  teachers.  The  conservatory,  agricultural  department 
and  the  agricultural  experimental  grounds  should  have  a  sunny  exposure,  and  should  be 
planned  in  connection  with  the  complete  scheme  to  secure  a  beautiful  landscape  effect. 

With  such  a  development  as  above  it  at  once  becomes  apparent  that  the  housing  of 
the  entire  school  in  the  old  compact  form  is  a  mistake  and  should  be  rectified  in  existing 
plants  where  possible  and  avoided  in  the  preparation  for  future  expansion.  School  boards 
must  be  educated  up  to  the  necessity  of  planning  well  for  the  future,  and  the  burden  of 
educating  the  public  and  assisting  the  school  boards,  lies  with  the  architects  and  I  believe 
they  will  rise  to  their  opportunity. 

The  small  high  school  is  a  different  problem  and  cannot  economically  spread  out  to 
such  an  extent  as  would  be  possible  with  the  larger  plant,  yet  such  a  school  can  isolate 
departments  and  be  so  planned  that  conflict  is  unnecessary.  The  vital  problem  that 
confronts  the  architect  is  always  limited  funds  and  as  a  usual  thing  the  ingenuity  of  the 
architect  is  taxed  to  the  utmost  to  keep  building  requirements  within  the  funds  available. 

"That,  which  is  worth  doing  at  all,  is  worth  doing  well,"  and  school  boards  should 
adopt  this  as  their  motto  when  planning  a  building  even  if  that  means  the  omission  of 
some  portion  of  the  building  until  more  funds  are  available.  A  poorly  built,  cheaply 
finished  structure  made  so  by  the  desire  to  secure  space  is  a  mistake  that  can  never  be 
wholly  remedied,  while  a  well  built,  well  finished  structure,  planned  with  extensions 
or  additional  units  in  view,  can  readily  be  added  to  and  completed  in  sections  as  may  be 
desired.  v 

The  several  plans  illustrated  elsewhere  in  this  book  show  the  various  types  of  school 
plans  of  recent  buildings  from  the  single  building  to  the  group  plan  and  from  one  story 
on  up. 

THE  CONSOLIDATED  SCHOOL 

The  consolidated  school  first  put  in  its  appearance  over  one  hundred  years  ago  in 
the  United  States  and  has  slowly  developed  as  a  necessary  part  of  the  growth  of  education 
along  with  the  increase  in  population.  I  say  "slowly  developed"  owing  to  the  fact  that 
it  has  only  quite  recently  attracted  the  attention  it  merits,  and  at  the  present  time  con- 
solidation of  school  districts  is  being  urged  and  popularized  as  a  means  of  bringing  ad- 
vanced education  to  the  country  districts  where  the  one  room  school  has  so  long  held  sway. 

The  consolidated  school  is  the  grouping  together  of  several  school  districts  into  a 
consolidation  where  a  large  number  of  pupils  may  be  taught  by  two  or  more  teachers  in  a 
large,  well  equipped  building  having  facilities  for  teaching  thorough  and  more  advanced 
work  than  could  possibly  be  taught  in  the  one-room  school. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 71 

There  are  one  hundred  good  arguments  for,  to  one  against,  the  consolidated  school, 
but  with  every  splendid  reason  brought  forth,  the  country  districts  are  still  slow  to  grasp 
the  advantages  of  it  for  two  reasons;  one  is  the  fear  of  increased  taxation,  and  the  other 
is  the  average  farmer's  indifference  to  educational  advantages. 

It  has  only  been  within  the  past  fifteen  or  twenty  years  that  the  farmer  has  begun 
to  realize  the  need  of  education  and  its  application  to  farming.  Government  statistics 
show  that  the  average  productiveness  in  the  United  States  today  is  no  greater  than  it 
was  fifty  years  ago.  There  are  still  those  farmers  who  laugh  at  scientific  farming;  "Book 
farming,"  as  they  call  it.  The  southern  negro  still  plants  potatoes,  or  other  root  crops, 
in  the  dark  of  the  moon,  and  corn,  cotton,  etc.,  in  the  light  of  the  moon,  and  there  are 
others  who  believe  like  him.  Many  a  sturdy  farmer  worked  and  saved  to  send  his  children 
to  the  city  school,  believing  in  education  for  the  other  fellow's  business  but  not  for  his  own. 
If  Tom  wanted  to  get  an  education  and  leave  the  farm  the  old'  man  would  see  that  he  got 
it,  but  if  John  or  Tim  decided  to  stay  on  the  farm,  they  got  what  little  "Readin',  Writin' 
and  'Rithmetic"  they  could  absorb  at  the  little  one-room  log  school,  and  the  old  man 
believed  that  was  all  they  needed.  Farming  was  a  matter  of  tradition,  not  science,  the 
son's  instructor  was  his  father,  and  the  father's  farming  methods  were  handed  down  to 
him  by  his  father  before  him ;  in  consequence  the  rural  communities  looked  upon  education 
as  of  value  only  to  children  who  were  not  content  to  remain  on  the  farm,  but  preferred 
to  go  to  the  town  or  city.  Is  it  any  wonder,  with  such  a  belief  handed  down  from  genera- 
tion to  generation  that  the  enlarged  country  school  idea  has  developed  slowly?  State 
and  county  fairs,  farm  journals  and  agricultural  schools  have  all  lead  the  fight  for  educa- 
tion, and  now  as  the  present  generation  of  younger  farmers  grows  up,  they  are  more  and 
more  progressive  in  their  ideas  and  they  grasp  the  advantages  of  the  consolidated  chools 
and  by  their  vote  make  it  possible. 

The  ideal  consolidated  school  building  should  be  designed  to  accommodate  individ- 
ual grade  rooms  in  which  not  more  than  two  grades  would  be  housed  in  any  one  room; 
a  high  school  room,  with  science,  manual  training,  domestic  science  and  agricultural 
departments,  a  gymnasium  with  shower  baths,  an  assembly  room,  library,  teachers' 
room;  superintendent's  office,  reception  room  and  boys'  and  girls'  toilet  rooms,  and  a 
cafeteria  or  lunch  room.  If  the  school  is  not  planned  for  over  two  hundred  pupils  the 
above  list  of  rooms  should  be  ample;  as  the  school  enlarges  additional  facilities  will  differ 
but  little  from  the  town  or  city  school. 

The  building  should  be  planned  to  give  the  pupils  the  same  advantages  and  con-" 
venicnces  as  the  town  or  city  school  gives.  There  is  the  same  equality  of  birth  in  town  or 
country  and  there  should  be  the  same  educational  privileges.  The  problem  of  keeping 
the  boy  or  girl  on  the  farm  has  never  been  solved  before,  and  if  it  is  ever  to  be  solved,  it 
will  be  through  the  doors  of  the  consolidated  community  center  school,  and  through 
equal  opportunities  with  the  city  boy  or  girl.  For  many  years  there  has  been  a  steady 
stream  of  young  manhood  and  womanhood  from  country  to  city,  and  a  very,  very  small 
number  going  the  other  way. 

GOOD  DERIVED  FROM  CONSOLIDATED  SCHOOLS 

First — Better  Teaching.  The  consolidated  school  invariably  improves  the  teach- 
ing staff.  There  being  two  or  more  teachers,  a  principal,  or  superintendent  (who  is  either 
a  normal  school  or  college  graduate)  is  employed  to  teach  the  advanced  work  and  normal 
school  graduates  are  more  often  found  as  teachers  in  the  consolidated  schools  than  eighth 
grade  graduates,  who  usually  teach  the  one  room  country  school,  as  a  result  far  better 
teaching  brings  a  decided  advantage  to  the  pupils. 

Second — Improved  Attendance.  Owing  to  the  advantages  offered  by  a  well 
equipped  school  and  good  teaching  force,  a  much  improved  attendance  is  found  in  the 
consolidated  schools.  Pupils  are  more  regular  in  attendance  and  continue  through  the 
full  nine  months  course.  Literary  societies  are  organized;  foot  ball,  basket  ball  and  base 
ball  teams  attract  the  students.  Indoor  games  in  the  gymnasium  have  their  drawing 
power  and  the  varied  activities  keep  up  the  pupils'  interest  so  that  eighty-five  to  ninety 


72 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

percent  attendance  is  not  at  all  unusual  as  against  forty  to  fifty  per  cent  in  the  one-room 
school. 

Third — Organization  and  Improved  Work.  There  can  be  but  little  organiza- 
tion, if  any,  in  the  one-room  school,  and  that  little  will  depend  on  the  executive  ability 
of  one  teacher.  With  the  large  consolidated  school,  having  a  capable  instructor  at  its 
head,  and  several  teachers  to  assist,  a  successful  working  organization  can  be  built  up. 
The  one-room  teacher  has  such  a  wide  variety  of  classes  with  short  periods  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  do  justice  to  any  class.  The  writer  attended  a  country  school  where  there 
were  sixty-four  pupils,  and  the  teacher,  in  order  to  devote  necessary  time  to  advanced 
pupils,  had  delegated  a  couple  of  her  older  pupils  to  teach  first  and  second  grade  classes. 
In  the  consolidated  schools,  the  work  is  divided  up  into  longer  periods  and  the  teachers 
are  enabled  to  give  more  time  to  the  individual.  In  the  one-room  school  the  teacher  must 
teach  everything  regardless  of  adaptability.  In  the  consolidated  school  the  teacher  does 
not  have  such  a  wide  range  of  subjects  to  teach  and  can  concentrate  on  a  few  subjects 
and  do  them  justice.  This  results  in  marked  improvement  in  the  pupils  and  a  much 
larger  percentage  complete  their  work. 

Fourth — High  School  Advantages.  With  the  old  rural  one-room  school  teaching, 
up  to  and  including,  the  eighth  grade,  the  majority  of  country  students'  education  stopped 
at  that  point;  with  the  consolidated  school,  teaching  high  school,  there  are  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  times  the  number  of  students  who  complete  high  school  work  and  at  a  much 
reduced  cost  to  the  parents.  In  fact,  the  consolidated  school  makes  it  possible  for  many 
students  to  obtain  a  high  school  education  whose  parents  otherwise  would  be  unable  to 
afford  the  expenses  incident  to  sending  their  children  away  to  high  school  in  some  neigh- 
boring town.  It  costs  from  $150.00  to  $200.00  more  to  send  a  boy  or  girl  to  a  city  school 
than  to  keep  them  at  home;  furthermore,  they  are  taken  away  from  the  home  influence 
where  they  should  be  during  the  adolescent  period  when  they  are  so  apt  to  be  influenced 
for  evil  if  they  were  out  from  under  the  parental  restraint.  Again,  if  they  are  kept  away 
from  the  city  school  during  this  period,  they  are  not  so  apt  to  want  to  leave  the  farm  for 
the  attractions  of  the  city  and  its  varied  industries. 

Fifth — Community  Center  Features.  There  is  no  known  method  of  solidifying 
the  thought  and  actions  of  a  community  that  is  equal  to  the  community  center  activities 
that  can  best  be  housed  in  the  consolidated  school  building, — where  the  auditorium  or 
assembly  room  provides  a  place  for  lecture  courses,  literary  society  meetings,  farmers' 
'clubs,  class  plays,  political  gatherings  and  assemblies  of  every  nature — where  the  library 
or  domestic  science  department  furnishes  a  meeting  place  for  teachers'  and  mothers'  club 
activities — where  the  whole  community  may  gather  in  the  gymnasium  to  attend  athletic 
sports  of  every  description,  and  where  the  older  people  may  organize  for  athletic  work 
and  needed  exercise.  The  cafeteria  and  domestic  science  kitchen  and  dining  room  offers 
every  opportunity  for  socials  and  help  to  promote  a  better  acquaintance  and  good  fellow- 
ship among  the  people  of  the  district. 

All  these  departments  should  be  open  to  the  school  and  the  public  for  every  day  in 
the  year  if  there  is  call  for  them,  and  the  superintendent  or  principal  should  co-operate 
and  encourage  the  use  of  the  school,  moreover,  be  assured  that  the  district  whose  principal 
or  superintendent  succeeds  in  keeping  the  school  departments  continually  occupied  in 
this  way  is  going  to  see  a  wide  awake  progressive  community  as  the  result,  and  also  see  a 
marked  falling  off  in  student  migration  from  home  to  the  cities,  as  home  stagnation  and 
"nothin'  to  do  'till  tomorrow"  has  sent  many  a  boy  or  girl  to  the  bright  lights  of  the  city 
to  escape  the  hum-drum  existence  of  a  sleeping  community. 

There  is  a  wonderful  opportunity  awaiting  each  superintendent  of  a  consolidated 
school  if  he  will  but  grasp  it,  and  be  assured  that  the  awakening  of  a  community  can  be 
accomplished  by  the  live  superintendent  if  he  wills  it;  the  same  may  also  be  said  for  the 
school  board  and  great  things  can  be  accomplished  if  they  co-operate. 

The  writer  planned  a  consolidated  school  located  in  a  little  village  of  sixty  people, 
and  a  year  after  this  building  was  in  operation  the  school  board  made  a  complaint  to  the 
writer  on  a  visit  he  made  to  the  school  that  the  auditorium  and  gymnasium  were  too 
expensive  for  the  good  derived;  that  the  Gym.  was  used  but  one  night  a  week  and  the 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 73 

auditorium  about  the  same.  Upon  investigation  it  was  found  that  the  superintendent 
had  prohibited  the  use  of  the  gymnasium  for  more  than  one  nights'  use  because  the  janitor 
would  not  clean  up  afterwards  and  because  the  light  was  too  expensive,  and  last  but  not 
least,  he  would  be  required  to  supervise  the  Gym.  if  it  were  in  use  as  the  school  board  had 
made  his  contract  that  way.  Laziness,  pure  and  unadulterated,  was  the  trouble  with 
this  superintendent;  laziness  and  indifference  on  the  part  of  superintendents  and  school 
boards  accounts  for  most  of  the  indifferent  results  obtained  in  a  majority  of  the  schools 
where  such  complaints  arise. 

To  the  school  board  I  would  say,  "If  you  are  not  operating  a  successful  school,  do 
not  kick,  but  investigate  why,  then  act,  and  the  result  will  be  a  broader  educational  system, 
a  successful  consolidated  school,  and  a  progressive  community  alive  to  the  issues  of  the  day. 

Sixth  -Costs.  To  the  hard  headed,  conservative  tax  payer  who  wants  to  econo- 
mize in  the  cost  of  education  in  the  rural  community  I  would  unhesitatingly  say  that 
dollar  for  dollar  the  consolidated  school  building  is  the  least  expensive  building  for  the 
district  compared  with  the  one-room  country  school.  Four  teachers  in  the  consolidated 
school  (one  of  which  should  be  a  well  paid  principal)  will  do  the  work  of  six  teachers  in  as 
many  one-room  schools  and  do  it  better. 

Fuel  costs  less  to  heat  one  large  building,  proportionate  to  the  space,  than  to  heat 
six  small  buildings. 

Transportation  charges  will  of  course  offset  many  other  reductions,  but  the  advan- 
tages gained  far  outweigh  every  other  objection,  and  the  saving  to  parents  who  would 
have  to  send  their  children  away  to  high  school  more  than  over  balances  the  transportation 
charges  of  the  school  wagon  and  driver's  expenses.  One  old  farmer  that  I  know  of,  sent 
eight  children  away  to  high  school  for  an  average  of  four  years  each  at  an  average  cost 
of  $173.00  a  year  more  than  to  have  kept  them  at  home,  or  a  total  of  $5,536.00,  which 
would  have  covered  a  period  of  seventy-nine  years  of  taxes  at  $70.00  a  year,  the  amount 
this  man  was  actually  taxed  on  160  acres  when  his  district  consolidated,  and  he  was  the 
most  bitter  antagonist  that  consolidation  had  in  the  district. 

When  a  consolidation  takes  place  the  non-resident  land  owner,  the  man  without  a 
family,  all  corporations  and  others  who  derive  their  profits  out  of  the  district  are  taxed 
and  pay  their  pro  rata  expense  of  educating  the  children  of  the  district,  thus  reducing 
the  burden  the  man  of  large  family  must  of  necessity  bear.  You,  Mr.  Taxpayer,  without 
a  family  owe  it  to  the  state  to  do  your  share  toward  uplifting  the  standard  of  education, 
health  and  morality  of  the  growing  generation  as  we  are  educating  the  child  for  the  common 
good  of  all  and  the  perpetuity  of  the  state,  and  if  it  costs  you  something  you  should  be 
glad  to  pay  the  expense. 


74  PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Twenty-two 

Heating  and  Ventilating 


THE  heating  and  ventilation  of  school  buildings  has  been  responsible  for  much  of 
the  modern  progress  in  the  perfection  of  heating  apparatus  and  mechanical  ven- 
tilating systems  and  their  being  brought  up  to  the  high  standard  of  efficiency  they 
now  represent. 

During  the  past  twenty  years  there  has  been  a  very  marked  improvement  in  heating 
and  ventilating  apparatus  and,  while  we  have  not  yet  reached  perfection,  we  believe 
the  field  has  been  well  covered  and  the  fundamentals  of  heating  and  ventilation  are  now 
well  known;  so  well  known,  in  fact,  that  improvement  must  of  necessity  come  from  the 
perfecting  of  small  specialties  which  make  for  the  elimination  of  annoyance  in  the  opera- 
tion of  the  plant,  and  in  the  increased  efficiency  of  the  system  and  economy  of  its  operation. 

If  we  consider  the  health  and  efficiency  of  teachers  and  pupils  of  primary  importance, 
then  there  can  be  no  question  that  the  heating  and  ventilating  of  a  school  building  is  a 
vitally  essential  part  of  the  building,  equally  if  not  more  important  than  light  and  sanita- 
tion. 

The  question  will  arise  in  the  mind  of  a  school  board,  "what  system  shall  we  use  then 
to  secure  the  most  efficient  system  and  at  the  same  time  secure  maximum  economy?" 
To  that  I  would  say,  "Climatic  conditions  largely  control  the  answer,  and  must  be  care- 
fully considered  when  a  system  is  installed,  for  the  economical  and  most  satisfactory 
system  in  extremely  cold  climates  would  have  to  be  designed  differently  for  a  mild  climate 
where  a  moderate  amount  of  heat  is  needed.  In  cold,  extremely  dry  atmospheres  a  humidi- 
fying apparatus  is  needed  to  moisten  the  air.  In  extremely  humid  climates  the  exact 
reverse  may  be  necessary  and  dehumidification  of  the  air  may  be  resorted  to.  It  is  not 
the  writer's  intention  to  write  a  complete  analysis  of  heating  and  ventilating  systems, 
but  to  call  attention  to  some  of  the  problems  that  should  be  brought  to  the  attention  of 
the  school  board  who  are -preparing  to  erect  a  school. 

Regardless  of  climatic  conditions  the  fundamental  principles  of  a  successful  heaitng 
and  ventilating  system  are  as  follows: 

First.  A  heating  system  of  adequate  size  to  furnish  sufficient  heat  to  raise  the  tem- 
perature in  the  building  to  seventy-two  degrees  Fahrenheit  during  the  coldest  weather. 

Second.  The  heating  system  must  be  automatically  regulated  to  keep  the  heat 
constant  at  a  given  temperature  to  overcome  overheating  certain  rooms  caused  by  varying 
winds  and  varying  temperatures  and  likewise  to  insure  the  adequacy  of  heat  supply  in 
rooms  exposed  to  cold  winds  on  northern  exposures. 

Third.  The  heating  system  must  be  planned  to  conserve  every  ounce  of  steam  or 
heat  unit  and  to  consume  every  pound  of  fuel  without  waste  and  the  installation  must 
be  economical. 

Fourth.  The  ventilation  of  the  building  must  be  planned  to  deliver  thirty  cubic 
feet  of  air  per  minute,  for  each  person  in  the  building,  uniformly  distributed. 

Fifth.  The  air  must  be  warmed  to  the  proper  temperature  to  be  distributed  to  the 
rooms  at  sixty-five  degrees  to  sixty-eight  degrees  Fahrenheit  and  be  kept  in  constant 
motion,  in  order  that  the  maximum  benefits  may  be  derived  from  it. 

Sixth.  The  air  should  be  properly  humidified  and  kept  at  thirty-five  to  fifty  per 
cent  of  saturation  by  means  of  a  humidifying  or  dehumidifying  apparatus. 

Seventh.  Automatic  damper  control  must  be  provided  for  the  fresh  air  intakes, 
vent  dampers  and  dampers  controlling  the  heating  coils  which  warm  the  air  to  the  desired 
temperature,  also  automatic  control  of  the  valves  which  supply  the  steam  to  heating  coils. 

When  all  the  above  are  provided  in  a  well  balanced  system  there  can  be  no  question 
about  the  results.    It  will  mean  perfect  heating  and  ventilation,  an  end  we  are  striving 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 75 

for  and  each  year  finds  the  goal  nearer;  each  year  of  experience  brings  forth  some  improve- 
ment in  the  existing  types  of  apparatus  that  makes  for  efficiency  and  economy.  The 
experimental  stage  of  mechanical  heating  and  ventilating  systems  is  about  over  and  results 
may  be  confidently  expected  by  the  school  board  when  a  capable  architect  and  heating 
engineer  have  together  worked  out  the  problem  of  heating  and  ventilation  to  be  installed. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  about  the  expensive  ventilating  systems  that  do  not 
ventilate,  or  the  heating  system  which  does  not  heat.  Most  of  these  troubles  are  due 
to  improper  installation  of  the  plant  or  a  transgression  of  fundamental  laws  of  heating 
and  ventilating. 

Heating  systems  may  be  classified  as: 

No.  1 — Hot  air — gravity   furnace   systems, 

No.  2 — Hot  air — blast  systems, 

No.  3 — Hot  water  systems, 

No.  4 — Vapor  systems, 

No.  5 — Steam  heating  systems, 
and  the  different  systems  may  again  be  sub-divided  into  the  various  types  of  hot  air, 
vapor,  and  steam  systems;  however,  I  shall  not  attempt  to  describe  all  of  the  different 
sub-divisions  of  the  five  systems  mentioned.  Suffice  to  say  that  each  has  its  place  and 
will  be  more  or  less  successful,  according  to  how  well  the  plant  has  been  planned  and 
installed. 

No.  1 — Hot  Air,  Gravity  Furnaces.  The  one,  two  or  three-room  school  may  be 
heated  with  the  ordinary  type  of  cast  iron  or  steel  furnaces,  which  may  be  either  bricked 
in  or  enclosed  with  a  galvanized  iron  casing.  The  only  argument  for  this  kind  of  an  instal- 
lation is  the  economy  of  first  cost.  The  air  is  passed  in  over  the  furnaces,  is  heated  and 
expanded  and  passed  up  to  the  rooms  through  flues,  thus  creating  a  gravity  blast  system 
that  works  indifferently  well,  and  does  provide  a  circulation  of  air  in  the  rooms  during 
cold  weather  when  the  furnace  is  in  operation,  but  leaves  the  school  totally  without  ven- 
tilation when  there  is  no  heat  in  the  furnace  to  move  the  air.  This  type  of  furnace  heat 
should  never  be  used,  unless  in  connection  with  automatic  regulation  of  heat  and  humidity. 
Damper  regulation  of  the  heat  is  accomplished  by  having  two  air  supplies;  one  the  cold 
or  tempered  air  from  outside,  the  other  heated  from  over  the  furnace.  A  graduated 
thermostat  is  placed  in  each  room  connected  direct  to  the  air  motor 
which  operates  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  damper  (see  cut  of 
mixing  damper  with  attached  motor,  Fig,  62) ,  which  damper  auto- 
matically opens  the  cold  air  supply  and  closes  the  heat  supply  or 
the  opposite,  as  the  room  temperature  is  raised  or  lowered.  These 
dampers  operate  to  within  one  degree  of  the  temperature  the  ther- 
mostat is  set  for.  For  instance,  the  room  thermostat  may  be  set  for 
a  constant  sixty-eight  degrees  and  the  heat  rises  one  degree  above 
that  in  the  room,  immediately  acting  on  the  sensitive  thermostat 
which  operates  the  damper  motor  supplying  sufficient  cold  or  tem- 
pered air  in  the  flue  to  lower  the  temperature,  as  soon  as  the  quan-  Fig-  62 
tity  of  cold  or  tempered  air  in  the  flue  reduces  thetemperature 

in  the  room  the  thermostat  closes  the  cold  or  tempered  air  supply  by  shutting  the  damper, 
continuing  the  operation  so  long  as  there  is  heat  in  the  furnace.  While  cold  air  may  be 
used  to  operate  the  dampers  and  regulate  the  heat  in  the  room,  yet  the  too  sudden  change 
will  keep  the  room  thermostats  from  operating  evenly  as  the  opening  of  the  dampers  to  a 
cold  air  supply  will  make  a  quick  drop  in  temperature  that  will  result  in  cooling  the  room 
below  the  desired  temperature  so  it  is  very  desirable  that  a  tempered  air  chamber  be  pro- 
vided where  part  of  the  heated  air  is  mixed  with  the  cold  outside  air,  and  this  air  (which 
can  be  maintained  at  a  few  degrees  below  the  room  temperature)  is  then  mixed  with  the 
hot  air  from  over  the  furnace  to  regulate  the  temperature  in  the  rooms.  A  graduated 
thermostat  is  placed  in  this  tempered  air  chamber  to  keep  the  air  mixture  at  a  constant 
temperature.  Note  the  cut  shown  under  title  of  'Hot  Air  Blast  Systems,  figure  number 
sixty-three.' 


76 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


"tHh^  ^ 


f  i  q.    63 


The  automatic  regulation  of  humidity  is  accomplished  by  placing  a  humidostat  in 
the  room  where  the  air  is  to  be  humidified,  this  operates  a  valve  on  the  water  line  by 
opening  and  closing  the  valve,  as  the  air  becomes  dry  or  moist.  The  water  line  runs  to  a 
spray  nozzle  in  the  heating  chamber  and  as  the  air  in  the  room  loses  humidity  the  dry 
condition  affects  the  humidostat  which  opens  the  valve  on  the  water  line  starting  a  fine 
water  spray  from  the  nozzle  and  this  spray  evaporating  adds  humidity  to  the  air  until 
the  needed  amount  closes  the  valve  on  the  water  line  through  the  action  of  the  humidostat. 

Hot  air  furnaces  equipped  thus  with  regulation  on  both  heat  and  humidity  work 
successfully  as  heating  plants,  but  at  best  they  fall  away  below  the  standard  that  should 
be  set  for  ventilation,  as  dust  will  collect  in  the  flues  and  the  continual  expansion  and  con- 
traction, in  the  furnace  castings,  opens  up  the  seams,  permitting  smoke  and  gases  to 
escape  into  the  room.  The  evidence  of  this  can  be  seen  at  the  outlet  of  almost  any  heat 
duct  as  smoked  and  blackened  ceilings  are  usually  in  evidence  if  a  furnace  of  any  kind  is 
used.  The  furnace  when  used  must  be  centrally  located  to  secure  a  circulation  of  air  as 
there  will  be  but  little  movement  of  air  in  horizontal  flues  and  on  windy  days  the  rooms 
exposed  will  be  very  hard  to  heat  and  there  will  be  a  corresponding  fuel  loss  where  the 
fireman  attempts  to  overcome  this  trouble  by  an  excessive  use  of  fuel.  A  school  board 
should  take  all  this  into  consideration  and  pay  the  additional  first  cost  for  a  more  efficient 
apparatus,  rather  than  to  hazard  the  childrens'  health.  In  the  small  school  in  mild  cli- 
mates where  windows  can  be  opened  most .  of  the  year  this  type  of  installation  may  be 
used  where  a  little  heat  is  needed  during  short,  cold  periods. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 77 

No.  2 — Hot  Air,  Blast  Systems.  The  only  practical  difference  between  a  hot  air 
gravity  system  and  a  hot  air  blast  system  is  the  forced  circulation  by  means  of  a  fan. 
This  system  can  be  made  quite  effective  in  small  buildings  where  the  complete  system  in- 
cludes fan,  air  washer,  humidity  control  and  automatic  damper  control.  The  air  washer 
overcomes  the  objection  to  dust  being  driven  through  the  system,  and  the  humidity  is  sec- 
ured through  the  air  washer  spray  or  over  the  furnaces  as  explained  previously  under  '  Hot 
Air,  Gravity  Furnaces.'  However,  when  all  the  necessary  appliances  are  added  to  the  hot 
blast  system  there  still  remains  the  objection  to  the  system  that  cold,  outside  variable  winds 
make  the  system  hard  to  control,  and  with  the  necessary  apparatus  added  to  secure  effici- 
ency at  all  times  the  plant  becomes  as  expensive  as  a  steam  plant  and  not  so  easy  to 
operate,  nor  so  economical.  The  principal  reason  for  using  this  type  of  heating  is  the  saving 
in  installation  cost.  When  this  cost  almost  equals  the  cost  of  steam,  school  boards  should 
never  hesitate  in  their  selection  of  the  better  system.  The  cost  of  operating  a  hot  air  blast 
system  will  be  found  more  expensive  than  to  heat  by  steam.  The  repair  bills  for  a  cast 
furnace  far  exceed  the  repair  charges  for  any  other  type  of  heating;  cracked  sections  and 
parts  are  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception  due  to  expansion  and  contraction  caused  from 
the  varying  temperatures  in  the  furnace.  Experience  has  proven  that  after  a  few  years' 
use  the  furnace  installation  becomes  a  'Jonah'  and  the  misguided  school  board,  who  suf- 
fered its  installation,  wish  the  whale  would  come  along  and  swallow  it.  Cut  No.  3,  page  7, 
shows  a  fan  which  operated  a  blast  system  in  a  school  building  at  Sheldon,  Iowa.  This 
fan  was  taken  out  in  1916,  together  with  the  entire  battery  of  five  furnaces,  after  nine 
years'  use,  and  replaced  with  two  down  draft  boilers,  and  a  new  school  building  was 
erected  on  the  lot  adjacent  to  the  old  building  equally  as  large,  and  the  fuel  used  during 
the  extremely  cold  winter  of  1916-17  was  no  more  heating  the  two  buildings  than  was 
consumed  by  the  old  cast  furnaces  the  year  before  in  the  one  old  building. 

No.  3 — Hot  Water  Systems.  Hot  water  heating  consists  of  a  boiler,  or  boilers, 
filled  with  water  which  circulates  through  pipes  and  radiators.  A  tank  is  placed  above 
the  highest  radiator  with  an  overflow  connection.  This  tank  takes  care  of  the  expansion 
which  takes  place  when  the  water  is  heated.  Expansion  also  creates  the  circulation  as  the 
hot  water  rises  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  hot  air  rises. 

Hot  water  heating  is  unsuitable  for  school  heating  for  the  following  reasons : 

First,  and  principal  reason  has  to  do  with  the  ventilation  as  the  radiation  is  at  too 
low  a  temperature  to  permit  of  passing  cold  outside  air  over  the  vento  radiation  that  is 
needed  with  a  fan  system  as  the  slow  circulation  and  low  temperature  of  the  water  circu- 
lating through  the  pipes  would  cause  freezing  in  contact  with  cold  air. 

Second,  hot  water  heating  is  not  suitable  for  large  buildings  owing  to  its  slow  cir- 
culation, there  being  so  many  long  horizontal  pipes,  high  efficiency  cannot  be  secured  as 
hot  water  will  be  sluggish  and  run  slow  where  the  mains  have  long  horizontal  runs,  resulting 
in  cooling  the  water  to  such  an  extent  that  circulation  is  almost,  if  not  altogether,  stopped 
and  its  heating  efficiency  lost. 

Third,  there  is  too  much  danger  of  freezing  the  system  in  extremely  cold  climates  if 
heat  is  not  kept  up  constantly,  resulting  in  cracked  and  broken  radiation,  a  contingency 
that  could  not  arise  with  a  steam  plant.  The  first  cost  of  a  hot  water  plant  is  higher  than 
for  an  equally  efficient  steam  equipment,  and  as  efficiency  and  economy  are  both  essential, 
the  argument  is  in  favor  of  steam. 

No.  4 — Vapor  Systems.  The  small  school  building  can  be  most  economically 
heated  with  a  vapor  system  of  steam  heat.  The  theory  of  the  vapor  system  is  based  on  the 
fact  that  water  will  vaporize  at  a  lower  temperature  when  under  a  partial  vacuum,  in 
which  the  vapor  system  varies  from  a  vacuum  system  only  in  the  amount  of  vacuum 
carried  and  in  the  method  of  producing  the  vacuum.  The  economy  of  the  system  is  in 
the  low  fire  needed  to  produce  a  complete  distribution  of  vapor  through  the  building 
which  is  accomplished  by  increasing  the  vacuum;  this  causes  the  vapor  to  circulate  quickly 
through  the  plant.  The  usual  layout  of  the  vapor  system  consists  of  a  large  main  starting 
at  the  boiler  and  reducing  as  radiation  branches  off,  and  a  second  line  starting  at  the  first 
radiator  and  increasing  in  size  as  returns  from  the  raidators  are  added  on  as  it  goes  back 


78 PjUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

to  the  vacuum  producing  pump  or  trap.  Each  patented  vapor  system  supplies  its  own 
special  inlet  valves,  some  of  which  are  called  modulation  valves  and  these  control  the 
amount  of  steam  admitted  to  the  radiator.  However,  these  are  operated  by  hand  and 
they  do  not  give  the  positive  regulation  needed  in  a  school  building,  which  feature  is 
objectionable,  as  the  amount  of  heat  in  each  radiator  should  be  absolutely  controlled 
if  maximum  fuel  economy  is  to  result.  However,  the  system  has  many  good  features 
that  commend  it  for  small  installations  where  hand  regulation  must  be  resorted  to.  The 
patented  specialties  which  make  up  any  of  the  vapor  systems  are  expensive  and  they 
all  have  more  or  less  trouble  with  the  vacuum  producing  pump  or  apparatus  which  is  some 
disadvantage,  so  unless  the  school  is  quite  small,  say,  two  to  six  rooms,  the  best  results  will 
be  obtained  by  installing  a  positive  vacuum  system  where  there  will  be  absolute  certainty 
of  results. 

No.  5 — Steam  Heating  Systems.  The  steam  heating  systems  are  numerous,  all 
quite  efficient  as  heating  mediums,  but  when  combined  with  the  need  for  perfect  ventila- 
tion most  of  the  steam  systems  must  be  discarded,  leaving  only  a  limited  choice.  Steam 
systems  are  classified  as: 

(a)  Direct  steam,  which  consists  of  radiators  placed  in  the  various  rooms  having  no 
other  means  of  supplying  heat.  With  this  system  there  is  no  ventilation  except  such  as 
may  be  brought  in  through  the  opening  of  the  windows.  In  a  school  building  this  is  very 
bad  for  the  childrens'  health.  When  the  room  becomes  overheated  the  teacher  opens 
the  windows  to  secure  ventilation  and  the  cold  air  comes  in  forming  draughts  which  are 
conducive  to  colds,  coughs,  etc.,  owing  to  the  dry  atmospheric  condition  due  to  lack  of 
humidity. 

(b)  Direct,  indirect  steam — which  consists  of  direct  steam  with  all  the  disadvantages 
of  (a)  except  that  a  wall  register  is  set  into  the  outside  wall  back  of  the  radiators  permitting 
outside  air  to  enter  the  room.  The  air  is  then  taken  out  through  vent  ducts,  either  ex- 
hausted by  ventilators  on  the  roof  or  by  an  exhaust  fan  in  the  attic  which  connects  all 
the  vents  together  and  exhausts  the  air  out  through  a  large  ventilator  on  the  roof.  This 
system  is  a  little  better  than  (a)  but  cannot  be  recommended  as  the  fuel  cost  is  excessive, 
since  the  cold  air  coming  in  from  the  outside  cools  the  radiators,  condensing  the  steam 
quickly  and  wasting  heat  units.  Furthermore,  the  dry,  dusty  air  from  outside  comes  in, 
lacking  in  humidity,  leaving  practically  the  same  objections  to  the  system  as  in  (a). 

(c)  Indirect  and  Blast  Systems — These  all  contain  the  same  objections  as  (a)  and 
(b)  with  the  further  objection  that  was  advanced  against  the  furnace  systems,  that  out- 
side, strong  winds,  acting  against  the  building,  made  it  impossible  to  adequately  heat  the 
exposed  rooms.  The  indirect  system  usually  consists  of  pin  radiation  placed  at  the  foot 
of  heat  flues  which,  by  heating  and  expanding  the  air  in  the  flues,  starts  the  warm  air 
upward  into  the  room  to  be  heated.  The  blast  system  provides  the  heating  stack  in  a 
large  mass  and  by  driving  the  air  over  the  radiation  it  becomes  heated  and  is  delivered 
to  the  rooms. 

The  humidity  control  may  be  added  to  this  system  by  either  using  humidostats  and 
a  spray  in  the  heat  ducts,  or  by  the  use  of  the  air  washer  and  steam  jet  which  is  injected 
into  the  washer  spray,  this  latter  being  the  more  positive  method,  and  will  be  more  fully 
described  later. 

(d)  Split  System — This  last  combines  the  good  features  of  heating  the  rooms  ade- 
quately by  direct  steam  and  secures  the  ventilation  by  a  forced  fan  system  of  air  circula- 
tion disregarding  the  windows  as  a  means  of  ventilation,  depending  entirely  upon  the  fan 
for  all  fresh  air  in  the  rooms. 

By  combining  a  complete  positive  vacuum  system  of  direct  steam  heat  in  each  room, 
each  radiator  regulated  with  a  quick  acting  thermostat  with  a  forced  fan  system  of  ventila- 
tion delivering  humidified  washed  air  to  each  room  in  adequate  quantities,  the  most 
satisfactory  system  of  heat  and  ventilation  known  at  the  present  time  is  secured.  As 
this  system  of  heat  and  ventilation  is  now  in  successful  operation  all  over  the  country  in 
the  most  successfully  operated  schools,  it  deserves  complete  explanation. 

The  writer  planned  and  built,  among  others,  two  school  buildings  during  the  year 
1916  within  100  miles  of  each  other;  one  having  18,800  square  feet  of  radiation,  and  the 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 79 

other  having  19,200  square  feet.  Each  had  identically  the  same  equipment  throughout 
consisting  of  two  down  draft  steel  boilers;  a  one-pipe  gravity  wet  return  system  of  steam 
with  automatic  regulation  on  the  radiators,  an  air  line  attached  to  a  positive  acting  power 
driven  vacuum  pump;  the  air  a  partial  recirculation  system  controlled  by  automatic 
dampers  operated  by  diaphram  valves;  the  air  passing  through  an  air  washer,  being 
humidified  by  the  insertion  of  steam  into  the  air  washer  sprays,  and  regulated  by  a  humido- 
stat  placed  in  one  of  the  rooms  centrally  located  in  the  building.  From  the  air  washer 
the  air  passed  through  reheating  coils  and  the  temperature  raised  to  sixty-eight  degrees 
as  it  was  forced  into  the  rooms  through  the  fan  and  a  large  plenum  chamber  and  indi- 
vidual ducts.  From  the  rooms  the  air  was  drawn  out  by  an  exhaust  fan  and  either  recir- 
culated or  exhausted  from  the  building,  arrangement  being  made  so  that  seventy-five  per 
cent  would  recirculate  and  twenty-five  per  cent  outside  air  come  in  at  all  times  when 
the  temperature  was  below  zero,  using  more  outside  air  as  the  temperature  outside  raised, 
until  at  thirty  to  fifty  degrees  above  zero,  all  outside  air  was  used,  the  damper  regulation 
in  all  cases  being  automatic  with  an  electric  driven  air  compressor  located  in  the  fan 
room  operated  by  an  automatic  switch  to  keep  the  air  pressure  constant  at  fifteen  pounds 
for  operating  the  diaphram  valves. 

Now  the  idea  I  wish  to  bring  out  is  this:  The  school  having  19,200  square  feet  of 
radiation  burned  167  tons  of  coal,  the  other  burned  238  tons;  mine  run  in  both  cases. 
The  school  burning  167  tons  of  coal  employed  an  engineer  at  $85.00  a  month,  the  other 
school  employed  a  janitor  at  $65.00  a  month.  The  buildings  being  located  in  the  same 
relative  climate,  both  heated  continuously  through  the  entire  heating  season,  should 
have  burned  approximately  the  same  amount  of  fuel,  however,  there  was  a  difference 
of  seventy-one  tons  less  in  the  larger  school.  Assuming  this  fuel  to  be  a  clear  saving,  due 
to  proper  and  intelligent  operation  of  the  plant  (which  was  actually  the  case),  we  find 
the  saving  in  dollars  and  cents  amounting  to  $340.80  for  coal.  However,  the  engineer 
was  paid  $20.00  a  month  more  for  nine  months,  so  deducting  $180.00  from  $340.80  we 
find  the  more  expensive  man  to  be  the  cheaper  of  the  two.  In  addition  to  making  the 
saving  the  engineer  had  a  much  smaller  electric  current  expense  for  the  school  year,  due 
largely  to  proper  oiling  and  taking  care  of  motors  and  equipment.  This  whole  argument 
is  a  prelude  to  my  description  of  the  most  efficient  type  of  heating  and  ventilating  system 
and  is  an  argument  for  efficiency  on  the  part  of  the  man  you  expect  to  employ  to  operate 
the  plant.    Read  page  thirty-six,  paragraphs  five  and  six. 

It  is  absolute  folly  to  install  a  system  of  automatic  dampers,  valves,  and  motors, 
with  fans,  air  washers,  down  draft  boilers,  etc.,  unless  you  employ  some  brains  to  run  it. 
It  took  brains  to  invent  this  equipment,  brains  to  design  it,  ability  to  install  it,  and  do 
you  think  a  dub  can  run  it? 

Last  winter  the  writer  received  a  long  distance  call  from  a  town  in  Iowa  to  come  at 
once  as  the  heating  plant  was  a  failure  and  would  not  work.  After  spending  a  half  hour 
looking  over  the  system  it  was  found  that  the  vacuum  pump  would  not  operate,  conse- 
quently there  was  no  vacuum  on  the  radiation  which  was  full  of  air,  and  with  fifteen 
pounds  of  steam  on  the  boiler  some  of  the  radiators  remained  cold  except  for  one  or  two 
of  the  first  sections.  Having  found  the  trouble  to  be  with  the  vacuum  pump  the  writer 
investigated  that.  The  pump  was  one  that  operated  with  two  automatic  valves;  one  a 
steam  line  to  the  boiler,  and  one  a  cold  water  line  from  the  water  supply  working  on  the 
principle  of  quick  condensation  to  cause  a  vacuum,  steam  first  filling  the  tank  which 
filled  the  body  of  the  pump,  which  operation  opened  the  cold  water  valve  releasing  a 
spray  of  cold  water  in  the  steam  which,  condensing  quickly,  caused  a  vacuum  in  the  tank 
this  in  turn  releasing  the  air  pressure  in  the  radiators  throughout  the  building,  however, 
the  pump  was  not  operating;  five  minutes  investigation  proved  that  there  was  no  trouble 
with  the  steam  line  as  the  tank  was  hot,  obviously  the  trouble  must  be  with  the  cold  water 
side ;.  investigation  of  the  cold  water  line  disclosed  the  fact  that  the  shut-off  valve  cutting 
off  the  cold  water  line  from  the  pump  was  closed,  opening  the  valve  started  the  pump 
and  in  forty  minutes  the  radiators  all  over  the  building  were  hot.  The  engineer  said 
'Well,  I'll  be  dog-gonned  if  I  saw  that.' 


80 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


The  foregoing  is  a  fair  sample  of  what  a  school  board  may  expect  if  a  cheap  (or  should 
I  say  expensive)  janitor  or  engineer  is  employed  to  operate  a  mechanical  heating  and 
ventilating  plant,  a  cheap  man  is  expensive  at  any  price.  You  may  say  that  this  dis- 
cussion of  engineers  is  getting  away  from  the  subject  but  I  consider  the  engineer  the  most 
important  installation  in  the  system,  and  after  completely  describing  his  requirements 
I  will  pass  on  to  the  stationary  parts  of  the  apparatus. 

First,  his  description  is  as  follows:  Efficiency  combined  with  a  reasonable  salary, 
ample  to  attract  the  man  with  ability. 

Second — Boilers.  These  should  be  with  the  down  draft  principle  to  conserve  heat, 
utilize  all  the  fuel  value  by  full  combustion  of  all  the  smoke  and  gases  which  make  for 
fuel  economy  and  a  smokeless  boiler.  The  smokeless  principle  is  now  manufactured 
in  practically  all  types  of  boilers  and  I  will  illustrate  only  one  of  them  as  the  principle 
is  the  same  in  all. 

Fig.  64  shows  the  standard 
type  of  portable  up  draft  boil- 
ers showing  the  blaze  passing 
up  and  through  the  tubes  to 
the  back  of  the  boiler,  return- 
ing through  the  upper  tubes  to 
the  front  of  the  boiler  and  out 
through  the  stack.  Figure  65 
shows  the  operation  of  the 
down  draft  clearly.  You  will 
note  that  coal  is  thrown  in 
through  the  two  upper  doors  in 
the  boiler  front  on  top  of  water 
grates,  that  is,  hollow  grates 
filled  with  water.  There  is  a 
fire  brick  bridge  wall  directly 
back  of  these  water  grates  with 
the  only  opening  through  the 
water  grates  downward  forc- 
ing the  gases  and  smoke  to  pass 
down  through  the  grates.  As 
fire  gains  headway  live  coals 
drop  through  on  the  lower 
grate  and  an  extremely  hot 
fire  results,  so  that  all  smoke 
and  gases  which  are  drawn 
downward  and  through  the 
water  grates  must  of  necessity 
be  consumed  owing  to  the  in- 
tensity of  the  heat  at  this 
point ;  the  live  coals  which  fall 
through  the  water  grates  are 
all  devoid  of  gas  and  smoke 
before  they  break  up  and  fall 
through,  hence  all  the  heat 
units  in  the  coal  are  consumed 
and  the  black  smoke  so  often 
seen  belching  forth  from  the 
chimney  dwindles  down  to  a 
pale,  thin,  wisp  of  light  gray 
vapor  that  soon  loses  itself  in 
_,_.  .   ,  .       .  „  ,    Fif-66       ....  ...     ,   ,  the  atmosphere,  while  the 

.hmcient  down  draft,  gas  and  smoke  consuming  boilers,  a  positive  fuel  sav-  ,        ,   »  j.i.-l  r< 

ing  type  of  boiler  of  high  efficiency.  SCnOOl   board   takes  the  profit 


Fig.  64 

Fig.  64  ilustrates  the  old  style  portable  up  draft  boiler, — the  type  of  boiler 
that  permits  smoke  and  gases  to  escape  in  clouds  of  thick  black  smoke  up  the 
chimney. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 81 

from  their  investment  in  reduced  fuel  bills.  The  average  increased  cost  for  down  draft 
boilers  in  a  $100,000.00  school  building  will  not  exceed  $300.00  and  they  pay  for  them- 
selves in  a  couple  of  years'  time. 

Third — Vacuum  Apparatus.  To  be  efficient  the  steam  circulation  must  be  accom- 
plished quickly  without  requiring  a  high  steam  pressure  on  the  boiler,  in  fact,  the  steam 
should  be  circulated  at,  or  near,  atmospheric  pressure,  and  only  during  extremely  low 
temperatures  should  it  be  necessary  to  run  the  steam  pressure  up  over  three  or  four 
pounds,  where  a  low  pressure  vacuum  system  is  installed  with  a  pump. 

There  are  a  number  of  efficient  vacuum  pumps  on  the  market  different  only  in  their 
method  of  operation.  The  '  Sparks '  automatic  steam  pump  consists  of  a  large  tank  with 
a  steam  connection  and  a  cold  water  supply,  each  supply  having  an  automatic  valve 
to  open  and  close  the  line.  This  is  one  of  the  most  economical  of  pumps  and  extremely 
simple  in  operation.  When  the  vacuum  is  set  for  a  certain  number  of  pounds  and  the 
vacuum  drops  below  this,  the  reduced  vacuum  releases  the  valve,  opening  the  steam  line 
and  steam  enters  the  tank,  the  heat  from  the  steam  expands  the  valve  on  the  cold  water 
line  releasing  a  fine  spray  of  cold  water  which  condenses  the  steam  quickly,  producing 
the  required  vacuum,  and  this  vacuum  immediately  acts  on  the  valve  to  the  steam  line 
closing  it  until  the  vacuum  again  drops.  The  pump  operates  in  this  way  automatically 
and  keeps  the  vacuum  constant  at  little  expense. 

The  electric  pumps  are  operated  by  a  small  electric  motor  which  is  started  and  stopped 
automatically  by  the  simple  method  of  opening  and  closing  a  circuit.  The  vacuum 
drops  below  the  pressure  set  and  the  switch  closes  the  circuit  starting  the  pump  motor, 
which  runs  until  the  vacuum  is  again  up  to  the  required  amount  when  the  pressure  of  the 
vacuum  forces  the  circuit  open  continuing  the  operation  as  the  vacuum  drops.  The 
electric  pumps  are  certain  of  operation  and  give  very  little  trouble  unless  the  steam 
system  gets  to  leaking;  if  this  happens  the  pump  runs  almost  continuously  and  becomes 
quite  expensive,  much  more  than  the  steam  pump.  Their  only  advantage  over  the  steam 
pump  is  at  night  when  the  steam  in  the  boiler  gets  quite  low,  down  below  atmospheric 
pressure,  the  electric  pump  will  continue  to  operate  when  the  steam  pump  would  not,  as 
the  steam  pump  requires  from  one-half  to  one  pound  of  steam  to  operate  successfully. 
However,  the  usual  system  of  steam  works  most  successfully  when  continually  fired,  so 
the  question  of  pumps  is  a  matter  of  choice. 

The  vacuum  pump  is  connected  by  an  air  line  to  each  radiator  in  the  building 
with  an  air  line  valve  at  the  radiator  outlet.  The  function  of  this  valve  is  to  automatically 
open  and  close  as  needed  to  let  the  air  out  of  the  radiator  into  the  air  line  and  keep  the 
steam  in  the  radiator  and  out  of  the  air  line.  This  is  accomplished  in  the  valve  by  expan- 
sion and  contraction.  When  the  radiator  cools  off  the  sensitive  plate  in  the  valve  con- 
tracts opening  the  air  valve  releasing  the  air  in  the  radiator  which  passes  quickly  out  of 
the  radiator  to  fill  the  vacuum  in  the  air  line  and  as  the  steam  follows  the  air  it  strikes 
the  sensitive  plate  in  the  valve,  expanding  and  closing  it.  This  automatically  continues 
so  long  as  there  is  steam  in  the  system. 

Fourth — Temperature  Control.  With  down  draft  boilers  and  a  positive  vacuum 
on  the  radiation,  there  lacks  but  one  further  adjunct  to  complete  the  economical  efficient 
operation  of  the  steam  system  and  that  is  the  addition  of  auto- 
matic regulation  and  temperature  control,  which,  like  a  general  in 
the  field  deploying  his  army,  always  placing  reinforcements  in  front 
of  each  attack,  so  the  automatic  regulation  on  the  steam  system 
throws  its  army  of  heat  units  from  side  to  side  of  a  building  to 
confront  the  attack  of  cold  biting  winds,  cutting  down  the  supply 
of  steam  to  radiators  on  the  warm  side  and  increasing  the  supply 
on  the  cold  side  by  the  simple  operation  of  closing  and  opening 
the  radiator  valves  to  adjust  the  room  temperature,  doing  away 
with  over  heated  rooms,  conserving  the  heat  supply  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  colder  exposures,  thus  eliminating  the  possibility  of  un- 
derheating  some  rooms.  Fig.  69 


82 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Fig.  70 


This  adjustment  is  accomplished  by  placing  a  sensitive  quick  ac- 
tion thermostat  (see  Fig.  69)  in  each  room  set  at  a  given  temperature 
of  sixty  to  seventy  degrees  as  preferred ;  these  thermostats  will  then  op- 
erate to  within  one  degree,  keeping  the  room  at  that  temperature.     As 
the  rooms  heat  up  the  thermostat  keeps  the  radiator  valve  open  until 
the  room  heat  slightly  passes  the  point  set  on  the  thermostat  which  ac- 
tion expands  the  sensitive  apparatus  in  the  thermostat  and  closes  the 
radiator  valve  which  remains  closed  until  the  room  cools  slightly  below 
the  point  set  on  the  thermostat  which  contracts  the  sensitive  part  of 
the  thermostat  opening  the  air  line  that  con  trolls  the  opening  of  the 
radiator  valve  (Fig.  70),  which  opens  and  permits  more  steam  to  enter 
the  radiator,  continuing  this  operation  all  through  the  heating  season 
without  interference  from  pupil  or  teacher,  as  near  fool  proof  as  a  sys- 
tem can  be,  economizing  and  doling  out  steam  like  a  stingy  miser,  but 
unlike  the  miser  always  exercising  absolute  justice  by  furnishing  exact- 
ly enough,  which  represents  the  highest  efficiency  and  truest 
economy.     The  entire  system  of  radiator  valves,  diaphram 
valves,  operating  by-pass  and  mixing  dampers,  etc.,  are  op- 
erated by  air  pressure  at  approximately  twelve  to  fifteen 
pounds  pressure.    This  pressure  is  kept  up  by  an  air  pump, 
operated  by  hydraulic,  electric  or  belt  power.    See  Figure  71 
which  illustrates  the  electric  compressor. 

The  hydraulic  and  electric  compressors  work  automatic- 
ally with  a  switch  device  to  start  and  stop  as  the  pressure  drops  below  the  required  amount 
or  exceeds  it.  The  belted  compressor  works  automatically  so  long  as  the  shaft  and  pulley 
from  which  the  power  is  taken,  continues  in  motion,  the  compressor  being  supplied  with 
tight  and  loose  pulley  and  an  automatic  belt  shifting  device  to  start  and  stop  the  compressor. 
The  usual  method  of  operation  is  to  attach  a  pulley  to  an  extended  fan  shaft,  operating  the 


Fig.  71 


IMP  COILS  "H"     L. 


F!C  7a 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


83 


compressor  while  the  fan  is  in  motion.  The  belted  compressor  should  be  used  when  the 
electric  or  hydraulic  power  is  not  available  or  as  a  last  choice,  as  it  controls  the  heat 
only  while  the  fan  runs,  and  if  by  chance  the  fan  is  not  operating  the  heat  regulation  is 
lost,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  plant  reduced.  The  automatic  regulation  of  all  dampers 
on  the  ventilation  system  hereinafter  described  is  controlled  from  this  same  air  com- 
pressor and  the  compressor  'D'  with  tank  (E'  in  Figure  No.  82  will  not  be  needed  if 
automatic  regulation  is  used  on  the  entire  system  of  heat,  ventilation,  and  hu  lidity 
control. 

Fifth — Ventilation.  The  system  of  ventilation  here  described  is  a  forced  fan 
system  on  the  heat  ducts  and  an  exhaust  fan  on  the  vents  providing  for  automatic  damper 
regulation  on  the  fresh  air  intakes,  foul  air  exhausts,  recirculating  dampers,  by-pass  and 
individual  duct  dampers  as  may  be  found  necessary.  Positive  regulation  of  the  air  tem- 
perature entering  the  room  can  be  secured  by  having  a  double  duct  system  leading  to  an 
automatic  mixing  damper  in  each  vertical  duct  leading  to  the  room  if  this  is  considered 
necessary,  however,  with  the  air  temperature  regulated  as  it  leaves  the  fan  and  tempering 
coils,  there  will  be  very  little  variation  in  temperature  when  it  reaches  the  rooms  and  this 
variation  will  be  taken  up  by  the  regulation  on  the  direct  steam  radiation,  and  balanced, 
so  that  no  objectionable  change  in  temperature  will  be  noticed. 

Figure  72  shows  a  typical  installation  with  a  vent  damper  on  the  roof  'A'  at  the  top 
of  a  stack  'B'  cut  off  from  the  vent  'C  by  return  air  damper  'D'.  A  fresh  air  damper 
'E'  is  shown  in  the  stack  below  the  damper  'D'.  Dampers  'A,'  'D'  and  'E'  are  operated 
together  so  that  fresh  air  'E'  and  vent  'A'  opens  as  the  other  closes  so  that  any  desired 
percentage  of  fresh  or  return  air  can  be  delivered  from  all  return  air  to  all  fresh  air  accord- 
ing to  the  temperature  of  the  mixture  when  it  arrives  at  the  thermostat  located  at  the 
bottom  of  the  stack  at  (F).  From  the  fresh  air  stack  (B)  the  air  is  passed  through  the 
air  washer  at  any  desired  temperature  above  freezing  regulated  by  thermostat  (F).  The 
air  passes  through  the  sprays  in  the  air  washer  and  is  humidified,  and  is  reheated  to  the 
desired  temperature,  for  return  to  the  rooms,  by  coils  (H).  A  by-pass  damper  is  placed 
under  the  coils  and  a  thermostat  in  the  tempered  air  chamber  or  heat  ducts  beyond  the 
fan  operates  the  by-pass  damper  regulating  the  heat  that  passes  into  the  rooms.  The 
air  is  driven  into  the  rooms  as  indicated  in  Figure  72  and  the  exhaust  vents  are  aided  in 
the  discharge  of  the  foul  air  by  an  exhaust  fan  (J)  which  guarantees  the  positive  operation 
of  the  ventilating  plant.  The  exhaust  fan  is  omitted  in  a  majority  of  the  small  school 
buildings,  but  is  a  necessary  part  of  the 
system  in  a  large  building.  The  general 
arrangement  of  the  plant  should  be  such 
that  long  heat  or  vent  flues  with  abrupt 
or  numerous  turns  in  direction  can  be 
avoided.  All  flues  should  be  provided  with 
volume  dampers  and  where  the  flues  are 
taken  off  of  a  plenum  chamber  or  large 
duct,  there  should  be  adjustable  sweeps 
placed  in  the  ducts  to  deflect  the  air  turn- 
ing it  into  the  ducts  to  secure  the  necess- 
ary volume  and  equal  distribution  by  ad- 
justment of  the  dampers. 

The  air  should  be  delivered  to  the 
room  in  a  manner  that  will  permit  of 
equal  distribution  all  over  the  room;  if 
the  room  is  a  large  one  several  registers 
should  be  placed  in  it.  Register  faces 
should  be  much  larger  than  the  flue  to  re- 
duce the  velocity  of  the  air  as  it  is  forced 
into  the  room;  deflected  blades  or  diffusers 
should  be  set  vertically  in  the  opening  to 
the  flue  to  deflect  the  current  of  air  in  the 


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Fig.  73 


84 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


direction  it  is  desired  to  have  the  air  flow.  See  Figure  73.  Splitters  should  be  provided 
as  shown  in  section  Figure  73  to  equally  distribute  and  change  the  direction  of  the  air  as 
it  leaves  the  registers. 

Sixth — Am  Washer  and  Humidifier.  A  story  was  told  by  a  prominent  air  washer 
manufacturer,  how  he  had  spent  an  entire  evening  explaining  to  a  school  board  the  opera- 
tion of  an  air  washer  and  when  he  was  through  a  woman  member  of  the  board  who  had 
paid  scarcely  any  attention  to  his  demonstration,  suddenly  spoke  up  and  said  '  I  can  see 

bow  you  can  get  a  fine  spray  for 
dampening  the  clothes,  but  sure- 
ly you  don't  mean  to  tell  us  that 
you  wash  them  with  air,  that's 
preposterous.  The  word  "air 
washer"  is  hardly  the  correct  de- 
finition of  the  so-called  air  wash- 
er, as  it  does  not  convey  the  full 
meaning.  The  word  "air  washer" 
conveys  to  the  average  layman 
the  sole  idea  of  cleaning,  freeing 
the  air 'from  impurities,  and 
while  it  accomplishes  these 
things,  it  also  conditions  the  air 
and  when  operated  with  a  hum- 
idostat  and  humidifying  appara- 
tus, it  furnishes  the  most  positive 
acting  humidity  control  known. 
Figure  74  shows  the  rear  end  of 
an  air  washer  where  the  air  en- 
ters the  washer  passing  through 
a  perforated  metal  sheet  which 
forms  a  distributing  plate  to  dis- 
tribute the  air  over  the  surface 
of  the  washer  equalizing  the 
velocity  of  the  air  through  the 
spray  chamber.  After  passing 
through  the  distributing  plate 
the  air  encounters  the  spray 
which  is  shown  by  Figure  75. 
The  air  travels  in  the  same  di- 
rection as  the  water  spray  and 
becomes  thoroughly  saturated. 
The  spray  is  formed  in  a  special 
shaped  nozzle,  Figure  76,  which 
effectively  breaks  up  the  water 
into  a  fine  mist  or  spray.  The 
pressure  required  to  produce  this 
atomized  spray  is  from  eighteen 
to  twenty-five  pounds,  and  is 
furnished  through  a  double  suc- 
tion pump,  Figure  77,  which  re- 
circulates the  water  through  the 
air  washer  pumping  water  out  of 
the  tank  at  the  bottom  of  the 
washer,  forcing  it  through  the 
spray  nozzles,  where  the  water 
falls  again  into  the  tank  to  be 
Fig.  76  again  pumped  out.      Figure  78 


Fig.  74 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


85 


shows  the  inside  of  a  washer  with  the  outside 
casing  and  the  distributing  plate  removed, 
exposing  the  spray  nozzles  and  pipes  at  the 
rear  of  the  washer,  the  tank  below  and  the 
eliminator  plates  in  front.  The  air  is  drawn 
or  forced  through  the  sheet  of  water  from  the 
spray  nozzles  and  is  thoroughly  saturated  by 
the  time  it  is  thrown  against  the  eliminator 
plates.  These  plates  are  shown  with  a  part 
of  the  casing  removed  in  Figure  79.  There 
are  four  essential  requirements  of  the  elimi- 
nator plates: 

First — The  elimination  of  all  small 
particles  of  water  that  might  be  carried 
through  the  washer,  suspended  in  the  air. 

Second — To  produce  the  least  possible 
resistance  to  the  free  passage  of  the  air. 

Third— To  provide  as  large  a  wet 
washing  surface  as  possible  to  procure 
the  best  washing  effect. 

Fourth — To  secure  a  washing  surface 
that  can  be  readily  cleaned  of  all  mud, 
silt,  and  foreign  matter  that  might  adhere 
to  the  plates.  This  is  provided  for  by  us- 
ing vertical  plates  having  a  series  of  spray 
heads  constantly  spraying  the  ^^^^ 
vertical  blades  of  the  eliminator 
plates  from  above  (see  Figure  80) 
keeping  them  washed. 

The  latent  heat  of  evapora- 
tion must  be  supplied  in  just  the 
right  percentage  to  secure  proper 
humidity.  This  is  accomplished 
by  heating  the  spray  water.  Fig- 
ure 81  illustrates  an  air  washer 
equipped  with  the  "Carrier  Air 
Conditioning  Co.'s"  Automatic 
Humidity  Control  and  the  fol- 
lowing is  their  description  of  its 
operation.  (Note,  however,  that 
air  compressor  '  D '  and  storage 
tank  'E'  will  not  be  needed 
where  the  entire  system  of  damp- 
ers and  radiation  throughout  the 
building  is  controlled  by  auto- 
matic regulation;  the  air  is  fur- 
nished from  that  rather  than 
from  special  tank  and  compres- 
sor.) 

The  general  arrangement  of 
the  humidity  control  system  is 
shown  by  Figure  81.  The  stem 
of  a  graduated  thermostat  shown 
at  A  is  placed  in  the  passage  just 
beyond  the  eliminators,  so  that 
it  is  exposed  to  the  temperature 


Fig.  77 


Fig.  78 


86 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Fig.  79 


ELIMINATING   SURFACE 


*«UllllB9ESSfflfll 


Fig.  80 


Fig.  81 


of  the  air  leaving  the  washer,  and  its  expan- 
sion or  contraction  is  caused  entirely  by  this 
temperature,  and  the  variation  due  to  its  ex- 
pansion is  made  to  regulate  this  temperature. 
The  water  heater  of  the  ejector  type 
shown  at  B  is  placed  in  the  suction  line  to 
the  pump.  The  heater  operates  like  a  baro- 
metric condenser,  so  that  the  temperature  of 
the  spray  water  is  varied  by  varying  the 
amount  of  steam  furnished  to  the  ejector. 

The  diaphragm  steam  valve  shown  at  C 
is  placed  in  the  steam  line  which  supplies 
the  water  heater.  This  valve  is  operated 
by  compressed  air  pressure  from  the  gradu- 
ated thermostat  A. 

The  air  compressor  shown  at  D 
furnishes  compressed  air  at  about  fif- 
teen pounds  pressure  to  the  storage 
tank  E.  The  compressor  is  driven  by 
the  same  motor  that  drives  the  spray 
water  circulating  pump  G. 

The  reverse  acting  diaphragm 
valve  shown  at  H  is  normally  closed, 
but  is  opened  by  compressed  air  from 
the  tank  E,  passing  through  the  safe- 
ty valve,  I. 

This  methed  is  extremely  sensi- 
tive, as  any  variation  in  the  air  tem- 
perature passing  over  the  stem  of  the 
graduated  thermostat  produces 
a  change  in  the  air  pressure  on 
the  diaphragm  steam  valve, 
causing  the  valve  to  partially 
open  or  close,  thereby  producing 
a  new  water  temperature.  In 
only  a  few  seconds  this  water  is 
sprayed  into  the  air,  affecting  its 
temperature,  giving  to  it  more  or 
less  heat  in  accordance  with  the 
requirements  of  the  thermostat. 
This  air  in  about  one  second 
passes  over  the  thermostat  stem, 
imparting  to  it  the  change  in 
temperature,  thereby  completing 
the  cycle.  The  system,  while  sen- 
sitive, is  not  frail  or  delicate." 

Some  school  boards  have 
asked  why  go  to  all  this  bother 
and  expense  to  wash  and  humi- 
dify the  air.  We  did  not  have 
these  things  when  we  were 
young,  and  we  are  still  hale  and 
hearty?  Perhaps  not,  but  nature 
provided  for  you  without  your 
knowledge  in  your  home  from 
the  steaming  kettle  on  the  kitch- 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 87 

en  stove  or  the  pot  hanging  in  the  old  fire  place  where  steam  bubbled  out  and  quickly 
lost  itself  in  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of  humidity. 

How  many  times  have  you  heard  some  one  say,  "It's  as  dry  as  the  Sahara  Desert," 
and  yet  the  average  dry  heated  room  temperature  without  humidity  is  twice  as  dry  as 
the  Sahara  Desert  when  the  outside  temperature  is  zero.  We  find  by  actual  hygrometric 
tests  that  outside  zero  temperatures  saturated  contain  approximately  .5  grains  of  mois- 
ture per  cubic  foot.  Heating  the  air  to  seventy  degrees  Fahrenheit  does  not  increase 
the  moisture,  but  it  does  increase  the  capacity  of  the  air  to  absorb  moisture.  For  the 
capacity  of  air  at  seventy  degrees  Fahrenheit  to  absorb  moisture  to  the  saturation  point 
has  been  found  to  be  eight  grains  per  cubic  foot,  therefore  the  relative  humidity  of  outside 
air  at  zero  being  .5  when  heated  to  seventy  degrees  Fahrenheit  is  six  per  cent  and  it  should 
be  around  forty-five  per  cent  to  insure  health  and  comfort. 

A  school  room  with  its  crowded  condition  is  subject  to  the  quick  spread  of  contagion, 
and  coughs,  colds,  enlarged  tonsils,  tonsilitis,  and  kindrd  ills  are  very  much  augmented 
by  a  dry,  heated  atmosphere  devoid  of  moisture.  Nature  demands  an  even  balance 
between  the  body  and  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  and  the  dry  heated  air  will  absorb 
moisture  from  the  body,  if  it  cannot  take  it  from  any  other  source,  faster  than  it  can  be 
supplied  by  the  body  through  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane;  this  results  in  the  suscepti- 
bility of  the  body  to  disease  when  working  under  this  condition,  consequently  it  is  nec- 
essary to  provide  every  safeguard  against  bad  working  conditions  to  reduce  the  spread  of 
disease  and  keep  up  the  health  of  the  pupils. 

There  is  one  other  argument  in  favor  of  the  system  of  recirculated  air  through  the 
air  washer  that  makes  any  argument  of  expense  against  its  use  futile,  and  that  is  fuel 
economy. 

A  majority  of  state  laws  prohibit  the  use  of  a  recirculation  system  without  the  air 
washer  and  the  permission  to  use  recirculation  is  with  the  understanding  that  only  seventy- 
five  per  cent  of  the  air  be  recirculated  through  an  approved  type  of  air  washer  and  com- 
plete recirculation  is  not  approved  under  any  condition,  it  is  conceded,  however,  that 
a  recirculation  of  seventy-five  per  cent  and  twenty-five  per  cent  outside  air  does  away 
with  any  injurious  effects  that  might  arise  from  any  accumulation  of  carbon-dioxide 
thrown  off  by  the  pupils  in  the  act  of  breathing. 

Without  the  air  washer  100  per  cent  of  outside  air  must  be  taken  in  during  extremely 
cold  temperature  and  heated  a  good  portion  of  the  time  from  ten  or  twenty  below  zero 
to  seventy  degrees  Fahrenheit  above  zero,  while  with  the  air  washer  twenty-five  per  cent 
has  to  be  heated  from  those  low  temperatures  while  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  air  has 
to  be  heated  from  about  sixty  degrees  above  zero  to  seventy  degrees  above,  allowing 
for  a  drop  of  ten  degrees  in  the  passage  through  the  building  back  to  the  fan.  This  means 
a  direct  saving  in  fuel  of  approximately  twenty-seven  per  cent.  Where  the  recirculation 
and  air  washer  is  used  a  smaller  boiler  or  boilers  may  be  used  and  there  is  only  one-fourth 
the  vento  radiation  needed,  consequently  the  reduction  in  cost  for  smaller  boiler  and 
less  vento,  etc.,  largely  overcomes  the  added  cost  for  air  washer,  in  fact,  almost  offsets 
it,  so  with  its  resultant  large  fuel  reduction  there  is  no  argument  large  enough  to  overcome 
its  use. 


88  PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Twenty-three 

Sanitation  and  Sewage  Disposal 


WHEN  the  French  attempted  the  building  of  the  Panama  Canal,  they  failed,  largely 
on  account  of  the  terrible  scourge  of  disease,  the  lack  of  sanitary  quarters,  and 
their  indifference  to  sewage  disposal.  America  attacking  the  same  undertaking 
first  made  the  country  safe  and  free  from  unsanitary  conditions,  before  the  actual  work 
of  construction  started.  Havana,  Cuba,  year  after  year,  suffered  the  terrible  scourge  of 
yellow  fever  before  the  United  States  took  matters  in  hand  after  the  war  with  Spain,  and 
installed  a  complete  sanitary  sewer  system,  cleaning  up  the  filth  and  germ  breeding  con- 
ditions, practically  banishing  from  Cuba  that  terrible  disease.  New  Orleans  and  other 
southern  cities  of  the  United  States  were  made  safe  in  a  similar  way.  Disease  and  death 
stalk  hand  in  hand  with  filth  and  dirt,  so  knowing  this  to  be  true  on  a  large  scale,  with 
extremely  filthy  conditions,  we  should  realize  that  filth  and  dirt  even  on  a  small  scale  is 
proportionately  dangerous,  and  knowing  this,  why  harbor  any  filth  or  germ  breeding 
conditions?  Year  after  year  we  find  scholars  attending  school  where  no  pretense  at 
supplying  sanitary  toilet  facilities  has  been  made.  The  same  old  frame  out-houses  stand 
out  over  a  foul  smelling  vault  at  the  rear  of  the  school  grounds  where  winter  and  summer 
the  students  must  subject  themselves  to  the  discomforts  attendant  on  their  use.  On 
cold  wintry  days  pupils  will  restrain  themselves,  suffering  physical  discomforts  rather 
than  face  the  cold,  and  this  unnatural  physical  restraint  works  untold  injury  to  the  system, 
being  the  direct  cause  of  many  a  case  of  intestinal  disorder,  constipation  and  nervous 
disarrangement.  Eliminate  this  menace  to  your  children's  health  and  the  resultant 
decrease  in  doctor's  bills  will  quickly  pay  the  cost  of  installing  a  sanitary  toilet  system 
in  connection  with  your  school. 

Very  little  need  be  said  in  connection  with  city  sewerage  as  each  city  of  any  size 
knowing  the  congestion  and  close  proximity  in  which  people  live,  have  for  many  years 
realized  the  need  of  perfect  sanitation  and  have  expended  every  effort  to  provide  the 
city  with  a  perfect  sewerage  system,  regulating  through  their  health  department,  the 
individual  arrangement  of  toilet  rooms,  ventilation,  etc.  The  greatest  drawback  to 
perfect  sanitation  we  have  is  the  individual  who  is  willing  to  permit  filth  and  dirt  to  con- 
taminate his  surroundings.  Once  instill  the  belief  and  liking  for  absolute  cleanliness  in 
the  minds  of  all  people  and  our  health  departments'  job  will  be  a  sinecure,  while  the 
health,  strength  and  physical  wellbeing  of  the  nation  will  be  improved  to  a  degree  almost 
unbelievable,  as  the  individual  takes  upon  himself  the  task  of  cleaning  things  up  and 
keeping  things  clean,  both  physically  and  morally.  Dr.  Frank  Crane  is  quoted  as  saying 
that  "The  only  reason  we  dwell  in  ugly  houses  and  uncomely  cities,  endure  ash  heaps 
and  slums,  shacks,  ramshackle  tenements  and  hideous  furniture  is  because  we  are  bad. 
It's  a  part  of  the  trail  of  the  serpent  that's  over  us  all."  He  goes  on  to  state,  "I  fell,  yet 
cannot  express  the  vile  immorality  of  dull  rows  of  houses,  the  vice  impulse  of  unclean 
alleys,  the  sinfulness  of  unbecoming  clothes,  the  absolute  wickedness  of  whatever  is  ugly." 
Dr.  Crane  but  states  a  great  fundamental  truth.  We  are  taught  that  Adam  and  Eve 
lived  in  the  Garden  of  Eden,  which  is  pictured  as  altogether  lovely,  a  place  of  health 
and  joy:  a  place  where  we  could  not  conceive  of  any  particle  of  filth  being  found.  Revela- 
tions pictures  the  "Celestial  City"  of  such  wondrous  beauty  that  no  stretch  of  the  im- 
agination could  possibly  conceive  of  a  muddy  road  leading  into  the  pearly  gates. 

History  sets  an  example  for  us  in  the  life  of  the  Roman  Empire  which  should  both 
inspire  and  warn  us.  During  six  hundred  or  more  years  of  the  Roman  supremacy  their 
health  was  phenomenal,  their  only  medicine  consisted  of  the  baths,  and  this  example  of 
health  and  cleanliness  shows  to  us  the  wonderful  results  to  be  expected  from  cleanliness 
both  moral  and  physical,  for  it  was  not  until  the  national  stamina  was  undermined  by 
moral  filth  that  Rome  weakened,  and,  rotten  at  the  core,  fell. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


89 


Moral  health  and  physical  health  go  hand  in  hand.  Give  your  students  filthy,  dark, 
unventilated,  foul  smelling  toilet  rooms  whose  walls  are  covered  with  lewd,  filthy  writings, 
and  you  will  not  need  to  wonder  at  the  immorality  of  your  children,  you  should  be  sur- 
prised if  it  were  otherwise;  furthermore  this  unsanitary  condition  is  sure  to  spread  con- 
tagion that  may  start  in  your  school.  By  contrast,  if  you  build  well  lighted,  well  venti- 
lated, clean  smelling  toilet  rooms,  whose  walls  are  of  hard  washable  material,  impervious 
to  the  action  of  ammonia  fumes,  that  will  not  absorb  foul  odors,  walls  that  can  be  cleaned 
daily  if  need  be  to  keep  all  objectionable  writings  removed;  with  toilet  fixtures  of  the 
positive  flushing  type,  having  open  front  seats  and  every  precaution  taken  against  fouling, 
then  you  may  expect  an  improved  condition  among  your  students,  both  mental'  and 
physical.  We  grow  and  improve,  or  we  degenerate,  largely  according  to  our  environ- 
ments, therefore  we  should  provide  the  best  possible  conditions  as  an  example  to  the 
impressionable  child. 

SEPTIC  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 

Where  city  sewerage  disposal  can  not  be  had  we  are  compelled  to  use  small  septic 
tanks  as  a  means  of  sewage  disposal,  built  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  maximum 
school  requirements,  which  should  be  estimated  at  not  less  than  thirty  gallons  per  day 
per  pupil.  There  are  several  designs  of  sewage  disposal  tanks  now  approved  as  effective 
by  the  boards  of  health  in  various  states.  The  two  designs  illustrated  are  the  "Imhoff " 
tank  as  approved  by  the  Minnesota  State  Board,  and  the  "Kewanee"  tank  designed 
by  the  Kewanee  Public  Utilities  Co.,  either  of  which  are  effective  in  converting  the  sewage 
from  solids  into  liquids.  There  are  other  effective  types  which  embody  the  same  principal. 
The  following  description  of  the  operation  of  the  bacterial  principle  involved,  applies  to 
practically  all  septic  sewerage  plants  with  little  variation. 

FlGl 


<o 


MwJtoU 


I'DnUtd 
Vent  Hole 

n 


Jl 


\-m^^ 


«to|  SJX54J-- 


00 

_!_ 


I     I 


TikDupaalTuld. 


Semap  Inlet 


CICmttP 


Fig.  2. 


CI  Cove* 


to 

'le  Dispaul  field 


fig.  82 


90 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Figure  82  shows  a  large  double  tank  with  one  large  liquefying  tank  and  one  small 
syphon  chamber.  The  sewage  first  enters  the  liquefying  tank  through  an  inlet  that  enters 
below  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  this  tank.  The  outlet  from  this  tank  is  also  below  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  which  leaves  the  surface  undisturbed  for  the  rapid  operation  of  the 
bacteria  and  the  resultant  disintegration  of  the  solids.  The  bacterial  principle  involved 
is  as  follows: 

Certain  bacteria  called  anaerobes,  because  they  thrive  only  when  kept  in  the  dark 
and  away  from  contact  with  air,  have  the  power  to  reduce  vegetable  and  animal  solids 
to  liquids  and  gases.  These  operate  in  the  liquefying  tank  whose  inlet  and  outlet  are 
both  below  the  surface  of  the  liquid  thus  excluding  air. 

Certain  other  bacteria,  called  aeroves  because  they  thrive  only  when  kept  in  contact 
with  air,  have  the  power  to  purify  this  liquid  product  of  the  anaerobes,  by  oxidizing  it 
and  reducing  it  to  pure  water 
and  harmless  gases.  The  lique- 
fied sewage  which  has  been 
broken  up  in  the  large  tank, 
passes  out  into  the  syphon 
chamber  and  is  emptied  peri- 
odically into  a  disposal  field  or 
large  receptacle  where  in  con- 
tact with  the  air  the  liquid  is 
purified  and  filtered  away, 
soaking  into  the  surrounding 
soil  and  evaporating.  Such  a 
plant  should  have  a  specially 
prepared  dispos- 
al field  to  pro- 
vide space  for 
seapage  and 
evaporation  of 
the  liquid  sew- 
age. The  effici- 
ency of  the  disposal  bed  will  depend  largely  on  the 
nature  of  the  surrounding  soil  unless  special  provi- 
sion is  made  to  take  care  of  it.  Hard  clay  or  heavy 
soils  will  not  take  up  the  sewage  and  a  special  filter 
or  disposal  bed  will  overcome  the  difficulty.  To 
make  the  disposal  bed,  lay  open  drain  tile  as  indi- 
cated by  figure  83.  These  tile  should  be  covered 
with  sand  and  gravel  to  aid  the  quick  Alteration  of 
the  liquid  sewage.  The  porous  nature  of  the  sand 
and  gravel  permits  the  air  to  reach  the  liquid  thus 
stimulating  the  action  of  the  aerobes  and  the  puri- 
fication of  the  sewage.  The  system  should  be 
double  in  heavy  soils  with  a  switch  to  cut  off  one 
side  so  the  liquid  can  be  turned  from  one  field  to 
the  other.  Figure  84  shows  a  single  system  for 
porous  soils,  and  figure  85  shows  a  double  system 
with  switch  for  heavy  soils  and  large  installations. 
Figure  86  shows  the  method  of  filtration  and  drain- 
age where  there  is  a  system  of  under  drain  tile 
located  in  the  same  trenches  which  take  up  the 
purified  water  filtering  through  from  the  tile  above. 
The  under  tile  is  run  to  some  marsh  or  stream  if 
same  is  convenient,  or  to  some  spot  lower  than 
the  tile  field.  rf»«-Cw^, 


Sectional  V'Eff  -S/YOffwc  Tile 
*w  hcavy  cur  iotL 

r.«3  »* 


5ih,QL£  System  roe  jf^/tD.  /f/sr#n.0r>c>/v-> 

/f,V0    POfOUS    JO/J.S 


Doueit  Systim 


3/rPaw      or     Pitch 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


91 


Chapter  Twenty-four 

Toilet  and  Special  Room  Ventilation 

WHEN  the  manner  of  sewage  disposal  is  satisfactorily  disposed  of,  then  attention 
must  be  given  to  the  toilet  rooms,  their  fixtures,  ventilation,  and  lighting. 
Fixtures  in  a  school  toilet  room  should  be  of  the  very  best  and  most  simple 
operating  type  obtainable.  Much  might  be  said  for  and  against  the  various  makes  of 
fixtures.  There  are  some  things  especially  worth  while  to  consider  however,  when  selecting 
fixtures  for  the  school. 

The  toilet  fixtures  should  be  selected  for  their  quiet  economical  operation,  the  durable 
quality  of  their  valves  and  operating  parts,  under  varying  water  conditions,  their  adapta- 
bility to  varying  water  pressure  and  their  certainty  of  continued  operation  when  water 
is  full  of  alkali,  iron,  lime  and  other  deposits  which  form  scale  and  sediment  in  the  valve 
parts. 

A  school  toilet  fixture  should  be  of  vit- 
reous china  with  a  strong  well-made  "  whale-  ■ 
bonite"  (a  hard  sanitary  rubber  covered 
seat,  non-absorbent)  seat  open  at  the  front 
so  that  continual  use  of  the  seat  will  not  soil 
it.  Figure  87  shows  a  very  real  contrast 
between  the  style  of  closet  that  should  be  * 
used  and  the  ordinary  type  that  should  not 
be  used.  The  closet  should  be  seat  operat- 
ing, that  is,  one  which  starts  the  flow  of 
water  when  the  seat  is  forced  down  and  flush- 
es the  closet  when  the  weight  is  removed 
permitting  the  seat  to  raise.  With  a  seat 
operating  closet  of  this  type  there  is  no  dan- 
ger of  the  closet  remaining  unflushed  owing 
to  a  childs  forgetfulness,  which  often  occurs 
with  the  hand  flushing  arrangement.  The  ju- 
venile height  closet  should  be  used  through- 
out the  school  except  for  the  "Kindergar- 
ten," first  and  second  grades,  where  baby 
closets  should  be  installed.  The  juvenile  closet  is  thirteen  inches  high  while  the  baby 
closets  are  only  ten  inches.  These  latter  should  be  hand  operated  as  the  seat  action  is  not 
suitable  for  use  on  a  baby  closet. 

Urinals  should  be  of  standing  type  made  of  vitreous  china  if  expense  does  not  prohibit, 
otherwise  of  best  quality  porcelain.  The  vitreous  china  is  preferable  owing  to  the  impervi- 
ous nature  of  the  ware,  as  it  is  non-absorbent,  while  the  porcelain  is  ordinary  earthen  ware 
enameled.  Enameled  iron  is  sometimes  used  but  owing  to  the  danger  of  the  enamel  flaking 
off  is  not  so  desirable. 

Lavatories  should  be  of  vitreous  china  with  a  pop-up  waste,  rather  than  to  have  a 
chain  plug  with  rubber  stopper,  as  the  stopper  often  breaks  loose  from  the  chain  and  is 
lost,  while  the  pop-up  waste  operates  with  a  lever  and  can  be  opened  without  wetting 
the  hands,  as  is  so  often  the  case  where  the  plug  is  not  attached  to  the  chain  with  the 
ordinary  chain  pull.  Faucets  throughout  the  building  should  be  self-closing,  as  they 
soon  pay  for  themselves  in  the  water  saved. 

Drinking  fountains  should  be  continuous  flowing  with  a  regulated  flow  causing  a 
slow  movement  of  water  through  the  valve  when  it  is  closed,  just  enough  to  keep  the 
water  from  becoming  stagnant  or  warm,  the  children  open  the  valve  (which  is  self  closing) 


Fig.  87 


92 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


increasing  the  flow  when  drinking.  The  drain  from  these  fountains  may  be  connected 
to  the  automatic  flushing  tanks  on  the  urinals  of  the  floor  below,  thus  reducing  the  water 
waste. 

Toilet  stalls  and  toilet  room  walls  should  be  specially  treated,  to  protect  them  against 
absorption  of  ammonia  fumes  and  foul  odors,  and  to  protect  them  from  the  poetic  instinct 
of  the  degenerate.  To  do  this  a  hard  substance  must  be  used  which  can  be  readily  washed 
off  and  cleaned.  Where  economy  is  the  first  consideration,  we  use  a  "Keenes"  cement 
for  walls  and  toilet  stall  partitions,  trowelled  to  a  smooth,  hard,  polished  surface.  This 
surface  may  then  be  enameled  with  four  or  five  coats  of  washable  enamel.  If  funds  are 
available,  a  glazed  tile  for  the  floors  and  walls,  and  "Vitrolite"  or  marble  stall  partitions 
and  doors,  makes  the  most  satisfactory  toilet  room  finish  possible.  (Note:  "Vitrolite" 
is  a  pure  white  substance  impervious  to  moisture,  acid  stains  or  fumes  of  any  kind,  very 
much  like  glass.)  With  a  clean  toilet  room  where  writing  is  made  difficult  and  easily 
removed  it  becomes  easy  to  keep  the  toilet  rooms  sanitary,  both  physically  and  morally. 

A  toilet  room  may  be  ever  so  well  planned,  equipped  and  finished,  but  if  it  lacks 
proper  ventilation  it  soon  becomes  odorous,  so  by  all  means  make  provision  for  this  most 
essential  feature  in  toilets,  showers  and  locker  rooms.  When  planning  the  ventilation 
system  for  the  entire  school,  this  portion  should  be  provided  with  exhaust  fans  and  the 
bottom  portion  of  doors  opening  to  corridor  should  be  fitted  with  an  open  lattice  work  to 
permit  the  air  from  the  corridors  to  pass  into  the  toilet  rooms  and  out  through  the  toilet 
room  vents,  then  by  keeping  the  static  pressure  of  the  air  heavier  in  the  corridors  than  in 
toilet  rooms,  and  by  exhausting  the  air  from  the  toilet  rooms  by  means  of  a  fan  in  the  duct 
it  becomes  possible  to  maintain  a  constant  circulation  of  air  from  the  corridors,  through 
the  toilet  rooms  and  out.  Air  should  never  be  forced  into  a  toilet  room,  lest  it  should 
result  in  increasing  the  static  pressure  of  the  air  to  such  an  extent  that  it  would  pass  out 
through  the  doors  into  the  corridors  carrying  odors  with  it.  The  ordinary  method  of 
venting  the  toilet  rooms  is  to  place  a  large  exhaust  ventilator  on  the  roof,  it  can  not  be 
recommended  as  positive  enough  to  give  satisfactory  results  as  there  will  be  times  during 
the  year  when  the  vent  will  not  operate,  hence  the  need  of  a  positive  exhaust  fan.  The 
main  vent  should  have  several  openings  in  each  toilet  room  if  maximum  results  are  to  be 
obtained.  Each  toilet  fixture  should  have  a  vent  opening  in  the  wall  directly  back  of  the 
fixture  fifteen  inches  above  the  floor.  There  are  some  toilet  fixtures  which  have  a  vent 
attached  and  while  these  may  be  used  there  is  some  question  as  to  their  desirability,  a 
majority  of  architects  preferring  the  wall  vent  back  of  the  fixture.  In  addition  to  these 
vents  the  room  should  be  vented  with  a  large  opening  at  floor  and  ceiling.  Urinals  may  be 
locally  vented  or  have  a  hood  over  each  urinal  through  which  ammonia  fumes  may  escape. 
With  such  a  system  of  vents  carefully  worked  out  and  installed  no  difficulty  will  be  ex- 
perienced in  keeping  the  toilet  rooms  clean  and  free  from  odors. 

Next  to  the  toilet  room  ventilation,  the  shower  rooms  need  the  most  attention,  as 
students  come  in  from  active  exercise,  heated  and  perspiring,  with  damp  sweaters,  base 
ball  and  foot  ball  suits,  etc.,  which  are  hastily  removed  and  jammed  into  lockers,  anyway 

at  all  to  dispose  of  them  quickly.  Consequent- 
ly the  lockers  and  locker  rooms  soon  become 
foul  smelling.  To  obviate  this  difficulty  each 
individual  locker  should  be  provided  with  a 
separate  vent  and  the  rooms  should  be  vent- 
ed with  two  or  more  vents  at  opposite  sides 
of  the  room,  all  connected  to  an  exhaust  fan 
to  insure  positive  circulation.  The  outside 
doors  to  corridor,  gymnasium  or  swimming 
pool  should  be  provided  with  slat  vent  open- 
ings to  permit  air  entering  and  circulating 
through  the  shower  rooms.  Air  should  not  be 
forced  into  shower  rooms  any  more  than 
through  toilets.  Shower  room  walls  and  ceil- 
ings should  be  treated  as  toilet  rooms  are  treat- 


4Wr*AU>k 


F&U 


fiGUDE-ss.    LocKEsna  A^/zi-Z-o" 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 93 

ed  for  the  same  reason.  Figure  88  shows  a  detail  of  ventilated  locker  system  which  is 
quite  effective.  The  vents  to  locker  and  toilet  rooms  may  be  all  drawn  together  in  the 
attic  and  attached  to  one  exhaust  fan  if  distance  is  not  too  great.  Usually  a  building  is 
so  planned  that  two  small  exhaust  fans  for  this  purpose  are  found  to  be  sufficient. 

Every  laboratory  should  be  provided  with  exhaust  fan  connection  and'every  chem- 
istry table  should  have  an  exhaust  hood  for  every  two  students  working  over  the  table 
so  that  all  fumes  from  experiments  will  be  quickly  exhausted  out  of  the  room.  Special 
fume  cabinets  should  be  provided  in  the  chemistry  laboratory  for  experiments  where 
strong  fumes  are  given  off.  Such  cabinets  should  have  an  air-tight  glass  door,  through 
which  the  experiment  may  be  studied.  Precaution  must  be  taken  with  the  vent  duct  and 
exhaust  fan  lining  and  exposed  parts  of  the  fan  to  protect  them  from  the  corrosive  action 
of  the  chemistry  experiments,  consequently  an  acid  proof  paint  must  be  applied  to  all 
exposed  parts.  For  this  reason  the  exhaust  blower  from  chemistry  laboratory  should  be 
used  for  this  department  only  and  have  no  connection  with  other  vents. 

There  are  various  types  of  wardrobes  used  in  school  buildings  all  of  which  should 
have  complete  exhaust  ventilation.  The  wardrobe  system  is  quite  extensively  used,  but 
its  only  recommendation  is  its  economy.  The  wraps  of  all  the  children  in  a  room  must  be 
hung  up  in  one  of  these  wardrobes  together  with  overshoes  and  umbrellas,  so  on  wet  days 
they  seldom  dry  out  and  the  wardrobe  soon  becomes  odorous,  this  together  with  the 
absence  of  sunlight  makes  their  desirability  questionable.  Much  better  that  a  cloak 
room  be  provided  with  a  large  window  and  plenty  of  sunlight,  for  light  and  sunshine  still 
remain  our  greatest  purifying  influence. 

Finally  I  would  say,  place  toilet,  shower,  locker  and  cloak  rooms  on  a  sunny  exposure 
with  abundance  of  light.    The  minimum  being  one-tenth  of  the  total  floor  area  in  glass. 


94 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Twenty-five 

Seating,  Decoration  and  Artificial  Lighting 

FOR  many  years  we  have  been  seating  our  school  rooms  with  stiff  formal  rows  of 
desks  whose  general  form  and  character  have  changed  but  little.  We  are  still  doing 
this  to  a  considerable  extent,  yet  there  is  some  question  in  the  minds  of  educators 
as  to  the  advisability  of  continuing  this  formal  system  or  to  change  to  the  less  formal 
and  more  pliable  system  with  movable  chair  desks,  of  which  there  are  several  styles  on 
the  market.  We  find  among  young  pupils  the  inability  to  concentrate  their  attention 
for  any  long  period  of  time  so  we  design  our  Kindergarten  and  first  grades  with  movable 
chairs  and  a  variety  of  apparatus  to  keep  the  children  occupied  with  a  varied  change  in 
activity.  Now,  if  this  argument  holds  good  for  very  young  children,  and  if  change  is 
good  for  them,  it  will  be  still  good  for  those  who  are  only  a  little  older,  so  we  are  inclined 
to  believe  the  movable  chair  type  of  study  desk  will  find  its  place  in  the  growing  school 
system. 

The  regular  style  of  formal  seats  in  regular  rows,  is  so  well  known  that  no  comment 

is  necessary,  but  movable 
chairs  being  a  comparatively 
recent  addition  to  the  school 
seating  problem  makes  it 
worth  while  to  mention  a  few 
of  the  arguments  advanced  for 
their  use. 

Flexibility  seems  to  be  the 
keynote  of  the  argument. 

Pupils  may  sit  in  the  form- 
al arrangement  with  light 
from  the  left  side,  while  those 
who  are  left  handed  may  turn 
their  seats  entirely  around,  re- 
ceiving light  from  their  right 
side. 

Recitations  are  made  easy, 
for  those  pupils  in  the  room 
who  have  a  recitation  may 
move  their  chairs  close  to  the 
teacher,  leaving  the  remainder 
to  study.  Blackboard  recita- 
tions are  made  easy  by  facing  the  chairs  toward  the  blackboards  that  may  be  on  front, 
rear,  or  sides  of  the  room. 

When  dark,  wintry  days  arrive  with  leaden  skies  and  the  rooms  have  poor  light, 
desks  may  be  moved  over  close  to  windows  to  secure  light  without  the  use  of  artificial 
illumination. 

Chairs  may  be  removed  entirely  or  placed  around  the  walls  to  facilitate  class  drills, 
exercise,  or  play.  Furthermore,  the  janitors  job  of  sweeping  the  rooms  is  very  much 
lessened  and  the  work  can  be  done  more  thoroughly  with  less  expense.  Chairs  may  be 
moved  from  room  to  room  to  care  for  fluctuating  classes. 

There  are  many  other  advantages  claimed  for  the  movable  chair  desk  but  these 
are  the  principal,  and  most  logical  ones.  However,  since  we  do  away  with  formal  ar- 
rangements in  our  homes,  and  study  more  the  comforts  and  conveniences,  we  are  lead 
to  believe  that  the  informal  chair  desk  may  supercede  the  old  formal  type.  As  we  study 
the  psychology  of  child  life  and  the  effect  that  conditions,  mode  of  life,  etc.,  have  on  the 


Fig.  89 


PUBLIC        SCIHOOLS 


95 


Fig.  90 

growing  child,  we  learn  many  things  that  tend  to  change  the  old  formal  methodical 
methods,  and  so  it  may  be  with  our  old  formal  school  rooms.  This  same  argument  ap- 
plies to  decoration  and  color  in  the  school  rooms,  as  many  pshyiologists  hold  that  the 
emotions  are  influenced  by  color  to  quite  a  large  extent  and  some  maintain  that  this  is 
due  to  the  varying  luminosity  of  the  different  colors,  and  we  have  every  day  some  ex- 
ample of  its  truth  in  the  dull  gray  day  and  the  warm  bright  sunshiny  day,  which  acts 
in  a  marked  degree  on  our  emotions.  We  usually  speak  of  the  dark  and  cloudy  day  as 
cheerless  and  the  day  of  sunshine  as  cheerful  and  we  feel  accordingly.  This  being  true 
the  same  holds  good  with  the  decoration  of  the  school.  That  architect  whose  finer  per- 
ceptions will  aid  him  to  see  and  feel  this  can  do  wonders  with  the  design  of  his  school 
buildings,  if  he  will  design  with  this  thought  in  mind.  In  fact,  the  true  spirit  of  archi- 
tectural design  of  a  school  building  is  best  brought  out  in  the  warmth  and  cheer  con- 
veyed in  the  design  of  the  structure  and  its  decoration.  The  best  in  human  nature  is 
always  brought  out  by  the  bright  and  cheerful,  hence,  the  architect  may  convey  this 
aid  through  the  architecture  of  the  building  and  by  so  doing  lend  his  co-operation  for 
the  good  of  the  growing  generation.  No  school  should  be  completed  and  left  with  its  dull 
plastered  wall  surface  and  yet  the  item  of  decoration  is  one  of  the  first  to  be  cut  off  when 
the  cost  of  the  proposed  school  plant  runs  beyond  the  appropriation.  However,  we  must 
give  serious  consideration  to  the  problem  of  decoration  as  it  is  so  closely  allied  to  the 
problem  of  light.  Light  is  absorbed  or  reflected  according  to  the  surface  on  which  it 
falls,  so  of  necessity,  we  must  take  our  lighting  scheme  into  consideration  as  we  provide 
the  decoration.  Pure  white  reflects  approximately  90%  of  all  light  falling  upon  it.  Light 
cream  66%;  light  pink,  60%;  light  yellow,  58%  light  blue,  55%;  light  green,  21%;  solid 


Fig.  91 


96 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Fig.  92 

chrome  green,  11%.  Now,  with  this  in  view,  we  have  the  means  of  judging  the  char- 
acter of  decoration  we  may  use  in  the  school  and  at  the  same  time  provide  for  our  light 
supply.  Assuming  that  you  value  the  eyesight  of  your  children  of  primary  importance, 
and  that  you  are  desirous  of  placing  their  best  interests  ahead  of  every  other  considera- 
tion, then  you  will  not  hesitate  at  a  little  extra  expense  in  the  cost  of  decoration  and 
lighting.  Then  with  this  in  view  you  will  prepare  the  ceiling  as  your  main  reflecting  sur- 
face to  distribute  and  diffuse  the  rays  of  light  that  will  be  thrown  upon  it  from  indirect, 
or  partially  indirect,  light  fixtures,  which  you  will  use  throughout  the  building  in  study 
and  class  rooms  as  the  most  effective  means  of  distributing  light  for  study  purposes,  as  it 
most  nearly  diffuses  the  light  and  distributes  it  with  equal  intensity  throughout  the 
room  without  glare.  Furthermore,  this  light  may  be  turned  on  when  the  outside  light 
is  inadequate,  adding  to  the  light  in  the  room  without  causing  injurious  cross  lights 
and  shadows.  We  would  scarcely  think  of  sitting  out  in  the  direct  glare  of  the  sunlight 
to  read  owing  to  the  glare,  and  proportionately  this  same  glare  from  the  ordinary  direct 
light  acts  injuriously.  By  using  the  indirect  fixture  which  is  diffused  on  the  ceiling,  the 
children  are  able  to  see  the  figures  on  blackboards  without  difficulty,  figures  that  would 
be  invisible  at  the  same  distance  if  direct  light  were  used. 

Using  the  ceiling  with  a  clear  white  surface  as  our  reflecting  medium,  we  base  the 
estimate  of  light  needed  by  the  percentage  of  light  reflected  which  we  are  safe  in  as- 
suming as  90%.  However,  as  the  light  from  indirect  fixtures  is  also  partly  reflected, 
from  a  brilliant  specially  prepared  surface,  there  is  some  loss  from  this  surface,  possibly 
10%.  So  basing  our  estimate  on  this  fact,  we  can  assume  that  a  total  of  80%  of  the 
light  will  be  reflected  and  only  20%  lost.  With  this  definite  knowledge  we  can  well  af- 
ford to  pay  the  expense  in  electric  current  to  obtain  a  25%  decrease  in  eye  troubles  and 
the  resultant  increased  efficiency  of  the  pupils. 

Now,  continuing  with  the  decoration.  The  wall  surfaces  should  be  decorated  with 
some  of  the  lighter  more  cheerful  colors  whose  absorption  of  light  will  be  small.  These 
should  be  especially  cheerful  to  counteract  the  effect  of  solid  black  blackboard  space 
which  usually  covers  three  of  the  school  room  walls  and  because  of  its  blackness  absorbs 
practically  all  of  the  light  that  falls  upon  it.  So  a  very  light  tan  or  cream  tint  above  the 
blackboard  space  is  desirable  and  a  somewhat  darker  shade  below  it  works  well. 

I  would  not  recommend  that  one  color  be  used  throughout  the  building.  Each 
part  of  the  school  should  be  considered  as  to  its  function  and  be  decorated  or  left  plain, 
accordingly. 

Aside  for  the  question  of  color,  that  of  special  decoration  should  be  considered. 
Figure  89  shows  a  school  corrider  lined  with  warm  colored  tiles  and  symbolic  panels  in 
relief  covering  the  upper  portion  of  the  walls,  these  of  themselves  are  good,  note  however, 
the  bareness  of  the  corridor  and  the  severely  cold,  lonesome  effect  conveyed.  How  much 
more  cheerful  this  hall  would  be  if  a  little  color  had  been  added  to  the  walls  above  the 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 97 

tile  wainscot,  with  numerous  pictures  hung  upon  the  walls,  with  a  few  busts  and  trophies 
added.  Figures  90,  91,  92,  all  were  photographed  from  a  new  school  building  erected 
at  Hibbing,  Minnesota,  a  town  located  on  the  "Messaba"  iron  range,  where  the  largest 
mines  in  the  world  are.  located.  These  mural  scenes  depict  the  industries  of  the  town 
and  mines,  being  actual  views  of  the  great  iron  industry  from  the  mine  to  the  smelter 
and  on  to  the  great  steamships  which  convey  the  iron  away  to  the  great  iron  industries 
of  the  world.  What  more  fitting  means  could  be  found  to  inspire  the  children  of  that 
great  iron  country  with  the  dignity  and  worth  of  that  great  industry.  For  the  country 
school  what  more  fitting  than  the  reproduction  in  painting  of  the  vast  fields  of  waving 
grain  as  it  falls  before  the  reaper,  or  the  scenes  of  its  planting  to  the  final  views  of  the 
towering  grain  elevators  and  vast  flour  mills  that  store  the  supply  and  turn  it  into  flour 
to  feed  the  world.  You  can  in  fact,  educate  your  children  by  silent  word  pictures  quite 
as  much  as  by  spoken  lecture,  so  let  me  urge  you  that  do  not  be  miserly  with  the  decora- 
tion of  your  building.  Encourage  the  teachers  to  fill  their  rooms  with  flowers  and  see 
that  the  walls  are  hung  with  educational  views  and  warm  tinted  pictures  and  I  can 
assure  you  that  it  will  help  mightily  to  keep  your  children  interested  in  the  school  and 
create  a  liking  for  it  in  their  minds. 


98 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Twenty-six 

Play  Grounds  and  Landscape  Gardening 


A  BEAUTIFULLY  designed  building  with  poor  surroundings  and  cheerless  grounds 
will  not  appear  as  attractive  as  a  medicore  building  that  has  attractive  grounds 
well  laid  out  and  planted  with  proper  shrubs  and  trees,  placed  to  enhance  the 
architectural  effect  of  the  building  and  to  lend  beauty  to  the  surroundings. 

Think,  if  you  will,  of  the  numerous  towns  and  cities  you  have  visited,  bring  to  mind 
the  dingy,  dirty  streets,  with  the  unkept  yards,  squalid  out-houses  and  filthy  alleys  of 
some,  and  the  clean,  wholesome  appearance  of  others  with  their  paved  streets,  beautiful 
parks,  well  kept  lawns,  and  school  grounds  large  and  spacious,  beautifully  kept.  Almost 
anyone  can  call  to  mind  many  such  comparisons  and  these  conditions  are  largely  due 
to  an  indifferently  educated  public.  We  of  times  hear  the  excuse  of  poverty  given  as 
the  reason  for  squalid,  dirty  conditions.  This,  however,  is  not  entirely  the  reason,  for 
this  condition  can  only  exist  where  the  city  government  is  too  indifferent  to  clean  it  up. 
Given  a  city  government,  fully  educated  to  the  moral  effect  of  a  clean,  wholesome  city, 
plus  a  little  energy  and  judicious  expenditure  and  add  these  together  and  a  moral,  phy- 
sical, and  mental  uplift  will  be  the  result,  while  the  whole  community  will  respond  to  a 
civic  pride  that  will  do  much  for  the  city  or  town. 

This  task  is  one  that  requires  education,  and  the  education  can  best  be  given  by 
example;  so  the  place  to  begin  is  at  the  school  and  with  the  growing  generation;  once 
enthuse  the  school  children  with  a  love  for  the  beautiful,  clean  wholesome  things  of  life, 
and  they  will  do  more  with  their  parents  and  home  to  improve  conditions  than  any  other 
means  that  can  be  devised.  Set  the  example  by  making  the  school  grounds  the  most 
attractive  spot  in  town  and  then,  with  this  example  always  in  front  of  your  students, 
it  becomes  easy  to  urge  improvement.  There  is  no  more  practical  test  of  a  superin- 
tendent's, principal's,  or  teacher's  worth  than  the  example  they  set  for  the  pupils  to 
follow.  The  visitor,  who  passes  from  room  to  room  of  a  well  appointed  school  build- 
ing, where  attractive  pictures  and  pots  full  of  blooming  flowers  are  tastefuly  arranged, 


Forest  City,  Iowa  High  School,  showing  the  grading  terracing  and  sidewalks  admirably  arranged. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


99 


Two  city  blocks  devoted  to  school  buildings  and  playgrounds.     G.  L.  Lockhart,  Architect. 

where  walls  are  clean  and  furniture  and  desks  are  not  all  scratched  and  battered  up, 
will  quickly  appreciate  the  intelligent  thought  and  care  expended  to  secure  the  result. 
Visit  another  school  where  the  rooms  are  bare  and  cheerless,  where  walls  are  covered 
with  smudges  and  finger  marks,  where  desks  are  battered  and  scratched  and  carved 
by  the  restless  student,  and  listen  to  the  excuse,  that  follows  your  criticism,  that  "boys 
will  be  boys"  and  it  can't  be  helped,  and  you  begin  to  realize  by  the  comparison  that 
something  is  fundamentally  wrong,  and  that  in  the  latter  example  the  students  are  not 
receiving  the  proper  guidance  in  their  education.  The  most  eloquent  preacher  can  preach 
no  greater  sermon  than  the  quiet,  thoughtful  teacher  who,  in  her  every  day  work  in 
school,  teaches  the  love  of  the  beautiful,  the  liking  for  cleanliness,  and  the  protection 
of  property  to  her  students,  so  that  they  take  pride  in,  and  appreciate,  the  attractive 
appearance  of  their  school  rooms;  when  such  a  condition  is  secured  in  the  minds  of  the 
students,  the  teacher  has  done  much  to  direct  her  students  in  the  upward  path.  There 
is  no  half  way  course  between  good  and  evil ;  we  cannot  stand  still  and  we  either  improve 

or  degenerate,  so  the  up- 
lifting influence  of  the 
school  that  has  beautiful 
grounds,  artistic  build- 
ings, clean,  well  decora- 
ted rooms,  from  whose 
walls  inspiring  pictures 
and  historical  scenes  look 
down  upon  the  student, 
cannot  be  overestimated. 
Children  are  at  the 
most  susceptible  age 
when  they  first  begin, 
their  school  life  and  the 
beauty  of  the  school 
grounds  which  have  been 
well    landscaped,    whose 

Terracing  a  sloping  site  on  a'corner[lotjwhere  playground  space  will  be  admirably  velvety     lawns     beautiful 

arranged  at  the  far  end  of  the  building  with  a  park  at  the  rear  of  the  building  which  flnwar   Ur>Aa    on'rl    ar-rioti^ 

is  located  on  a  corner  occupying  one-quarter  of  the  block.    One  of  three  grade  schools,  ™wtr    ueub   ^nu    *"  llbllC- 

Iowa  City,  Iowa.     G.  L.  Lockhart,  Architect.  .  ally    bordered    Walks    be- 


100 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


«ij£ 

f 

'.95B"  Iff- 

^-6  in 

H    ■ 

t  .^^                    j 

*~^?SfC 

•••-  tgj"- 

!!*I2~*s 

^^tii^^^^^^^ 

:- 1  -ffi  iiji 

Landscaping  a  city  school  grounds  where  the  building  occupies  one-half  a  block. 
A  city  park  at  the  rear  of  the  building  furnishes  the  playground  space.  One  of  three 
grade  schools,  Iowa  City,  Iowa.     G.  L.  Lockhart,  Architect. 


ing  ever  before  the  eyes 
of  the  growing  child,  un- 
consciously exert  a  great 
influence,  and  the  beauty 
of  it  becomes  fixed  in 
the  child's  mind  as  an 
example  that  is  to  be 
desired  for  the  home  sur- 
roundings, and  many  a 
child  going  home  to  squal- 
id surroundings  becomes 
dissatisfied  with  home 
conditions  and  improve- 
ment soon  appears,  or  as 
the  children  grow  they 
become  dissatisfied  with 
such  home  environments, 
and  leave  to  better  their 
condition  elsewhere.  By  all  means  give  the  growing  generation  the  example  that  will 
lead  to  the  civic  improvement  of  the  next  generation.  For  if  the  youth  of  today  is  ed- 
ucated properly  they  will  clean  up  your  dirty  cities  when  they  come  into  power  in  their 
mature  years.  Dr.  Frank  Crane's  article,  "Morality  of  Beauty,"  is  a  truism  that  should 
be  taken  as  the  motto  of  every  filthy  city,  and  if  it  were,  landscape  architects  would  soon 
be  in  popular  demand.  He  says  in  part,  "In  its  very  core  and  heart  morality  is  beauty. 
Some  day  or  other  society  will  decree  that  all  unloveliness  must  cease,  all  ugliness  must 
be  destroyed.  If  this  city  were  suddenly  to  be  invaded  by  angels  and  dwelt  in  there- 
after by  beings  perfectly  good,  the  first  thing  they  would  do  would  be  to  tear  down  all 
the  unsightly  structures  and  build  both  dwellings  and  office  buildings  of  exquisite  archi- 
tecture; the  streets  likewise  would  be  made  bowers  of  beauty,  every  vacant  lot  would 
be  a  flowered  park  and  they  would  not  rest  until  the  town  of  men  was  a  gem  and  not  a 
scar  upon  the  breast  of  nature."  There  can  be  no  question  of  the  truth  of  Dr.  Crane's 
statements,  and  this  ideal  can  best  be  realized  by  inoculating  the  growing  generation 
with  a  love  for  such  conditions  by  the  examples  we  set  in  our  schools. 

The  second  consid- 
eration of  the  school 
grounds  should  be  the 
play  grounds.  Play 
grounds  and  play  ground 
apparatus  should  be  giv- 
en equal  consideration 
with  all  other  parts  of 
the  school  and  should 
never  be  slighted  or  dis- 
regarded. We  often  crit- 
icise the  children  for  their 
noisy  exuberance  and  try 
to  curb  this  nervous  en- 
ergy, however,  we  might 
as  well  try  to  curb  the 
expansion  of  steam  in  a 
heated  boiler,  for  both 
the  steam  and  the  boy's 
energy  will  burst  its 
bounds  if  curbed  too 
much;  better  far  to  direct 
this  energy  into  profitable 


One  of  three  Iowa  City,  Iowa  Grade  Schools.  This  building  covers  eight  acres, 
having  one  street  running  right  across  the  property  in  front  of  the  building,  this 
is  closed  to  all  but  pleasure  vehicles  and  has  a  large  flower  bed  and  fountain  pro- 
vided in  the  center.  Large  tennis  courts  are  provided  for  boys  and  girls.  G.  L. 
Lockhart,  Architect. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


101 


channels  than  to  curb  or  let  misdirected  energy  find  its  own  outlet.  Through  the  means  of 
the  supervised  play  grounds,  covered  with  a  variety  of  apparatus,  and  the  assistance  of  play 
rooms  or  gymnasium,  the  energy  that  might  find  its  outlet  in  carved  up  desks,  etc.,  will 
be  profitably  expended  in  the  physical  development  and  healthy  expansion  of  the  grow- 
ing child.  Do  not  stint  your  play  ground  space,  give  your  children  plenty  of  room.  Pro- 
vide an  athletic  instructor  and  see  that  your  anaemic,  weak  and  sickly  pupils  are  properly 
directed  in  their  play,  too  violent  exercise  may  do  them  more  harm  than  good,  find  what 
they  need  and  see  that  they  get  it.  Some  need  abundance  of  certain  kinds  of  exercise,  others 
need  an  entirely  different  form  of  play  or  physical  development,  so  the  play  ground  appa 
ratus  should  be  provided  to  fit  all  needs  and  conditions. 

Be  careful  as  to  the  selection  of  a  site;  see  that  it  is  high  and  dry,  and  if  a  low  spot 
cannot  be  avoided,  be  sure  that  it  is  well  drained.  Keep  your  buildings  away  from  swampy 
land,  such  soils  give  off  large  quantities  of  carbon  dioxide,  and  organic  matter  from  the 
rotting  swamp  or  marsh  lands  is  conducive  to  fevers,  rheumatism,  tuberculosis  and  other 
diseases,  and  why  invite  sickness  in  your  schools?  The  congestion  incident  to  a  large 
school  population  housed  daily  in  a  big  building  is  sufficient  reason  for  the  quick  spread 

of  contagion,  so  do  not  aggravate  the  con- 
dition by  a  careless  selection  of  the  school 
grounds. 

The  photographs  here  illustrated  show 
the  landscaping  of  the  small  city  lot  to  the 
beautifying  of  grounds  covering  several 
acres.  It  may  cost  you  something  to  se- 
cure the  necessary  ground  but  it  will  be 
cheap  at  any  price  if  you  will  but  measure 
the  good  you  will  have  accomplished  in  the 
improved  health  and  physical  well  being  of 
the  whole  school. 


From  the  cheapest  to  the  most  expensive  apparatus  with  equal  results.     Regardless  of  your  condition  and  finances, 
give  the  children  a  chance. 


102  PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Chapter  Twenty-seven 

Selection  of  an  Architect— His  Duties  and  Responsibilities 

WHEN  a  new  building  is  contemplated  or  an  old  one  remodeled,  the  first  con- 
sideration of  the  School  Board  should  be  the  selection  of  an  Architect  and  this 
selection  should  not  be  made  hastily,  in  fact,  of  all  the  factors  entering  into  the 
erection  of  a  building,  the  Architect  is  the  most  important.  When  you  are  seriously 
ill  you  carefully  investigate  the  merits  of  the  specialist  and  you  trust  your  life  in  the 
hands  of  the  man  your  investigation  convinces  you  can  best  treat  your  disease.  You 
investigate  his  reputation,  you  visit  your  friends  and  you  listen  to  their  reports  of  his 
treatment  of  them,  and  you  thoroughly  satisfy  your  own  mind  that  he  is  capable  and 
well  qualified  before  you  approach  him  and  place  your  treatment  in  his  hands,  and  after 
you  have  employed  him  you  put  your  entire  confidence  in  him,  take  his  medicine  for 
ill  or  good  trusting  his  skill  for  the  final  cure.  You  also  leave  the  matter  of  fee  to  him 
and  accept  its  amount  after  treatment  more  or  less  gracefully.  When  you  employ  an 
attorney  you  go  to  the  man  who  is  winning  cases,  who  has  a  reputation  for  efficiency  in 
his  profession  and  if  it  is  a  criminal  case  you  employ  a  criminal  lawyer  as  you  would 
select  a  specialist  in  the  treatment  of  tuberculosis  if  you  had  that  disease.  If  you  were 
the  head  of  a  large  corporation  with  a  case  that  involved  millions  you  most  certainly 
would  select  a  corporation  attorney  of  recognized  ability  to  handle  your  case,  and  after 
you  had  employed  your  attorney  you  would  give  him  all  the  information  he  asked  for 
and  you  would  not  attempt  to  write  his  brief  for  him,  you  would  trust  to  his  judgment 
and  ability  and  hope  for  the  best,  then  pay  whatever  fee  he  saw  fit  to  charge.  You  would 
never  select  him  without  first  making  careful  investigation  and  in  like  manner  you  should 
as  carefully  select  the  Architect  for  a  school  building  as  you  would  select  a  medical  or 
surgical  specialist  or  your  attorney.  Unfortunately  many  Architects  are  posing  as  spec- 
ialists in  school  work  and  perhaps  they  may  be  specializing  in  this  work  from  choice  and 
inclination,  but  many  are  doing  so  without  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  work  or  ability 
to  handle  it  and  in  consequence  it  becomes  necessary  for  School  Boards  in  all  justice  to 
themselves  to  visit  buildings  planned  by  various  Architects,  with  a  view  to  seeing  for 
themselves  the  results  obtained  by  other  School  Boards  who  had  employed  the  Architect 
or  Architects  they  have  under  consideration.  Such  inspection  of  buildings  will  be  a  liberal 
education  to  a  School  Board  as  well  as  an  aid  to  the  selection  of  the  Architect,  as  there 
is  a  big  difference  in  buildings  according  to  the  amount  of  study  put  into  the  plan  and  a 
School  Board  visiting  buildings  will  learn  much  that  will  be  of  value  to  them  and  they 
will  avoid  the  selection  of  a  poor  Architect  at  least.  However,  if  after  investigation  of 
the  work  of  several  Architects,  it  is  found  that  the  completed  buildings  show  an  equality 
of  plan,  design  and  arrangement,  then  a  careful  investigation  of  the  several  Architects 
should  be  made  and  that  one  selected  whose  reputation  for  honesty,  prompt  attention 
to  business  and  knowledge  of  the  economy  of  construction  and  equipment  is  the  best. 
Many  Architects  are  capable  along  certain  lines,  perhaps  brilliant  in  design  and  yet 
total  failures  in  the  planning  and  arranging  of  schools.  If  you  have  an  Architect  in  your 
locality  who  deserves  the  work  and  if  you  have  a  doubt  as  to  his  ability  to  handle  your 
school  building  program,  you  should  employ  a  consulting  Architect  (whose  knowledge 
of  school  work  is  unquestionable)  to  assist  you  in  developing  your  plans  and  the  balance 
of  this  work  can  be  handled  by  your  local  Architect  with  the  addition  of  consultation 
service,  and  you  will,  many  times,  save  the  consultation  fee.  Unfortunately,  both  for 
the  School  Boards  and  the  Architects,  when  it  becomes  known  that  a  school  is  to  be 
erected  at  a  certain  place,  the  School  Board  there  is  immediately  bombarded  with  a 
mass  of  letters  from  various  Architects  who  want  the  job.  The  School  Board  is  placed 
in  much  the  same  position  as  the  gallant  600,  with  Architects  to  the  right  of  them,  Archi- 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 103 

tects  to  the  left  of  them,  Architects  in  front  of  them  volleying  and  thundering  their  lauda- 
tory -verbiage,  extolling  the  virtues  of  their  particular  school  plans  and  the  wonderfully 
fine  schools  they  have  built.  Now  what  can  be  expected  of  a  School  Board  when  they 
are  so  importuned  by  letters  and  personal  visits  from  those  of  the  Architectural  profession 
who  are  most  anxious  to  secure  the  work.  They  meet  again  and  again  with  various 
good,  bad  and  indifferently  qualified  Architects,  and  they  soon  get  their  fill  of  so  many 
meetings,  become  tired  out  in  fact  and  award  the  work  oft  times  to  the  most  plausible 
talker  and  they  are  indeed  fortunate  if  they  select  a  capable  man  among  the  lot,  as  the 
most  capable  Architect  many  times  is  a  poor  conversationalist  and  his  chance  would  be 
poor  indeed  if  pitted  in  a  game  of  wits  with  an  expert  salesman.  However,  there  is  much 
of  chance  in  the  selection  of  an  Architect  by  listening  to  what  he  has  to  say  of  himself. 
Better  for  you  that  you  see  for  yourself  what  he  has  erected  and  compare  it  with  others. 
Almost  any  man  can  secure  recommendations  but  nothing  speaks  for  itself  more  than 
final  results  in  the  completed  work. 

Many  times  School  Boards  conclude  to  hold  a  competition  for  the  selection  of  an 
Architect  from  a  competition  based  on  competitive  sketches  and  if  such  a  competition 
is  held  according  to  the  recognized  program  as  adopted  and  recommended  by  the  Ameri- 
can Institute  of  Architects,  there  can  be  no  question  about  the  School  Board  securing 
satisfactory  results  and  as  a  means  of  enlightenment,  that  a  School  Board  may  see  all 
sides  of  the  question  before  arriving  at  a  decision  as  to  the  means  of  selection  they  wish 
to  adopt,  the  following  Professional  Practice  of  Architects  and  Schedule  of  Proper  Mini- 
mum charges  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects  is  herewith  printed ;  also  the  Illinois 
Society  of  Architects,  Canons  of  Professional  Ethics,  and  the  Program  of  Competitions 
as  recommended  by  the  American  Institute  of  Architects: 

AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  OF  ARCHITECTS 

Professional  Practice  of  Architects  and  Schedule  of  Proper  Minimum  Charges 

1.  The  architect's  professional  services  consist  of  the  necessary  conferences,  the 
preparation  of  preliminary  studies,  working  drawings,  specifications,  large  scale  and  full 
size  detail  drawings,  and  of  the  general  direction  and  supervision  of  the  work,  for  which, 
except"  as  hereinafter  mentioned,  the  minimum  charge,  based  upon  the  total  cost  of  the 
work  complete,  is  six  per  cent. 

2.  On  residential  work,  on  alterations  to  existing  buildings,  on  monuments,  fur- 
niture, decorative  and  cabinet  work  and  landscape  architecture,  it  is  proper  to  make  a 
higher  charge  than  above  indicated. 

3.  The  architect  is  entitled  to  compensation  for  articles  purchased  under  his  direc- 
tion, even  though  not  designed  by  him. 

4.  If  an  operation  is  conducted  under  separate  contracts,  rather  than  under  a  gen- 
eral contract,  it  is  proper  to  charge  a  special  fee  in  addition  to  the  charges  mentioned 
elsewhere  in  this  schedule. 

5.  Where  the  architect  is  not  otherwise  retained,  consultation  fees  for  professional 
advice  are  to  be  paid  in  proportion  to  the  importance  of  the  questions  involved  and  ser- 
vices rendered. 

6.  Where  heating,  ventilation,  mechanical,  structural,  electrical  and  sanitary 
problems  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  require  the  services  of  a  specialist,  the  owner  is  to 
pay  for  such  services.  Chemical  and  mechanical  tests  and  surveys,  when  required,  are 
to  be  paid  for  by  the  owner. 

7.  Necessary  traveling  expenses  are  to  be  paid  by  the  owner. 

8.  If,  after  a  definite  scheme  has  been  approved,  changes  in  drawings,  specifications 
or  other  documents  are  required  by  the  owner;  or  if  the  architect  be  put  to  extra  labor  or 
expense  by  the  delinquency  or  insolvency  of  a  contractor,  the  architect  shall  be  paid 
for  such  additional  services  and  expense. 


104 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

9.  Payments  to  the  architect  are  due  as  his  work  progresses  in  the  following  order: 
Upon  completion  of  the  preliminary  studies,  one-fifth  of  the  entire  fee;  upon  completion 
of  specifications  and  general  working  drawings  (exclusive  of  details),  two-fifths  addi- 
tional, the  remainder  being  due  from  time  to  time  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  service 
rendered.  Until  an  actual  estimate  is  received  charges  are  based  upon  the  proposed  cost 
of  the  work  and  payments  received  are  on  account  of  the  entire  fee. 

10.  In  the  case  of  the  abandonment  or  suspension  of  the  work,  the  basis  of  settle- 
ment is  to  be  as  follows:  For  preliminary  studies,  a  fee  in  accordance  with  the  character 
and  magnitude  of  the  work;  for  preliminary  studies,  specifications  and  general  working 
drawings  (exclusive  of  details),. three-fifths  of  the  fee  for  complete  services. 

11.  The  supervision  of  an  architect  (as  distinguished  from  the  continuous  personal 
superintendence  which  may  be  secured  by  the  employment  of  a  clerk-of-the-works  or 
superintendent  of  construction)  means  such  inspection  by  the  architect  or  his  deputy, 
of  work  in  studios  and  shops  or  a  building  or  other  work  in  process  of  erection,  com- 
pletion or  alteration,  as  he  finds  necessary  to  ascertain  whether  it  is  being  executed  in 
general  conformity  with  his  drawings  and  specifications  or  directions.  He  has  authority 
to  reject  any  part  of  the  work  which  does  not  so  conform  and  to  order  its  removal  and 
reconstruction.  He  has  authority  to  act  in  emergencies  that  may  arise  in  the  course  of 
construction,  to  order  necessary  changes,  and  to  define  the  intent  and  meaning  of  the 
drawings  and  specifications.  On  operations  where  a  clerk-of-the-works  or  superintendent 
of  construction  is  required,  the  architect  shall  employ  such  assistance  at  the  owner's 
expense. 

12.  Drawings  and  specifications,  as  instruments  of  service,  are  the  property  of  the 
architect. 

As  revised  at  the  Washington  Convention,  December  15-17,  1908. 

Glenn  Brown,  Secretary, 

The  Octagon,  Washington,  D.  C. 

AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  OF  ARCHITECTS 

A  Circular  of  Advice  Relative  to  Principles  of  Professional  Practice   and 

Canons  of  Ethics. 

The  American  Institute  of  Architects,  seeking  to  maintain  a  high  standard  of  prac- 
tice and  conduct  on  the  part  of  its  members  as  a  safeguard  of  the  important  financial, 
technical  and  esthetic  interests  entrusted  to  them,  offers  the  following  advice  relative 
to   professional   practice: 

The  professional  architect  calls  for  men  of  the  highest  integrity,  business  capacity 
and  artistic  ability.  The  architect  is  entrusted  with  financial  undertakings  in  which 
his  honesty  of  purpose  must  be  above  suspicion;  he  acts  as  professional  adviser  to  his 
client  and  his  advice  must  be  absolutely  disinterested;  he  is  charged  with  the  exercise 
of  judicial  functions  as  between  client  and  contractors  and  must  act  with  entire  impar- 
tiality; he  has  moral  responsibilities  to  his  professional  associates  and  subordinates; 
finally,  he  is  engaged  in  a  profession  which  carries  with  it  grave  responsibility  to  the 
public.  These  duties  and  responsibilities  cannot  be  properly  discharged  unless  his  motives, 
conduct  and  ability  are  such  as  to  command  respect  and  confidence. 

No  set  of  rules  can  be  framed  which  will  particularize  all  the  duties  of  the  architect  in 
his  various  relations  to  his  clients,  to  contractors,  to  his  professional  bretheren  and  to 
the  public.  The  following  principles  should,  however,  govern  the  conduct  of  members  of 
the  profession  and  should  serve  as  a  guide  in  circumstances  other  than  those  enumerated : 

1.     On  the  Architect's  Status. 

The  architect's  relation  to  his  client  is  primarily  that  of  professional  adviser;  this 
relation  continues  throughout  the  entire  course  of  his  service.  When,  however,  a  contract 
has  been  executed  between  his  client  and  a  contractor  by  the  terms  of  which  the  archi- 
tect becomes  the  official  interpreter  of  its  conditions  and  the  judge  of  its  performance, 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 105 

an  additional  relation  is  created  under  which  it  is  incumbent  upon  the  architect  to  side 
neither  with  client  nor  contractor,  but  to  use  his  powers  under  the  contract  to  enforce  its 
faithful  performance  by  both  parties.  The  fact  that  the  architect's  payment  comes  from 
the  client  does  not  invalidate  his  obligation  to  act  with  impartiality  to  both  parties. 

2.  On  Preliminary  Drawings  and  Estimates. 

The  architect  at  the  outset  should  impress  upon  the  client  the  importance  of  suffi- 
cient time  for  the  preparation  of  drawings  and  specifications.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  archi- 
tect to  make  or  secure  preliminary  estimates  when  requested,  but  he  should  acquaint 
the  client  with  their  conditional  character  and  inform  him  that  complete  and  final  figures 
can  be  had  only  from  complete  and  final  drawings  and  specifications.  If  an  unconditional 
limit  of  cost  be  imposed  before  such  drawings  are  made  and  estimated,  the  architect 
must  be  free  to  make  such  adjustments  as  seem  to  him  necessary.  Since  the  architect 
should  assume  no  responsibility  that  may  prevent  him  from  giving  his  client  disinter- 
ested advice,  he  should  not,  by  bond  or  otherwise,  guarantee  any  estimate  or  contract. 

3.  On  Superintendence  and  Expert  Services. 

On  all  work  except  the  simplest,  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  owner  to  employ  a  super- 
intendent or  clerk-of-the-works.  In  many  engineering  problems  and  in  certain  special- 
ized esthetic  problems,  it  is  to  his  interest  to  have  the  services  of  special  experts  and 
the  architect  should  so  inform  him.  The  experience  and  special  knowledge  of  the  archi- 
tect make  it  to  the  advantage  of  the  owner  that  these  persons,  although  paid  by  the  owner, 
should  be  selected  by  the  architect  under  whose  direction  they  are  to  work. 

4.  On  the  Architect's  Charges. 

The  Schedule  of  Charges  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects  is  recognized  as  a 
proper  minimum  of  payment.  The  locality  or  the  nature  of  the  work,  the  quality  of 
services  to  be  rendered,  the  skill  of  the  practitioner  or  other  circumstances  frequently 
justify  a  higher  charge  than  that  indicated  by  the  Schedule. 

5.  On  Payment  for  Expert  Service. 

The  architect  when  retained  as  an  expert,  whether  in  connection  with  competitions 
or  otherwise,  should  receive  a  compensation  proportionate  to  the  responsibility  and 
difficulty  of  the  service.  No  duty  of  the  architect  is  more  exacting  than  such  service, 
and  the  honor  of  the  profession  is  involved  in  it.  Under  no  circumstances  should  experts 
knowingly  name  prices  in  competition  with  each  other. 

6.  On  Selection  of  Bidders  or  Contractors. 

The  architect  should  advise  the  client  in  the  selection  of  bidders  and  in  the  award 
of  the  contract.  In  advising  that  none  but  trustworthy  bidders  be  invited  and  that  the 
award  be  made  only  to  contractors  who  are  reliable  and  competent,  the  architect  protects 
the  interests  of  his  client. 

7.  On  Duties  to  the  Contractor. 

As  the  architect  decides  whether  or  not  the  intent  of  his  plans  and  specifications 
is  properly  carried  out,  he  should  take  special  care  to  see  that  these  drawings  and  speci- 
fications are  complete  and  accurate,  and  he  should  never  call  upon  the  contractor  to 
make  good  oversights  or  errors  in  them  nor  attempt  to  shirk  responsibility  by  indefinite 
clauses  in  the  contract  or  specifications. 

8.  On  Engaging  in  the  Building  Trades. 

The  architect  should  not  directly  or  indirectly  engage  in  any  of  the  building  trades. 
If  he  has  any  financial  interest  in  any  building  material  or  device,  he  should  not  specify 
or  use  it  without  the  knowledge  and  approval  of  his  client. 

9.  On  Accepting  Commissions  or  Favors. 

The  architect  should  not  receive  any  commission  or  any  substantial  service  from  a 
contractor  or  from  any  interested  person  other  than  his  client. 

10.  On  Encouraging  Good  Workmanship. 

The  large  powers  with  which  the  architect  is  invested  should  be  used  with  judgment. 
While  he  must  condemn  bad  work,  he  should  commend  good  work.    Intelligent  initiative 


106 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

on  the  part  of  craftsmen  and  workmen  should  be  recognized  and  encouraged  and  the 
architect  should  make  evident  his  appreciation  of  the  dignity  of  the  artisan's  function. 

11.  On  Offering  Services  Gratuitously. 

The  seeking  out  of  a  possible  client  and  the  offering  to  him  of  professional  services 
on  approval  and  without  compensation,  unless  warranted  by  personal  or  previous  busi- 
ness relations,  tends  to  lower  the  dignity  and  standing  of  the  profession  and  is  to  be 
condemned. 

12.  On  Advertising. 

Advertising  tends  to  lower  the  dignity  of  the  profession  and  is  therefore  conde  mned 

13.  On  Signing  Building  and  Use  of  Tiles. 

The  display  of  the  architect's  name  upon  a  building  under  construction  is  condemned, 
but  the  unobtrusive  signature  of  buildings  after  completion  has  the  approval  of  the 
Institute.  The  use  of  initials  designating  membership  in  the  Institute  is  proper  in  con- 
nection with  any  professional  service  and  is  to  be  encouraged  as  helping  to  make  known 
the  nature  of  the  honor  they  imply. 

14.  On  Competitions. 

An  architect  should  not  take  part  in  a  competition  as  a  competitor  or  juror  unless  the 
competition  is  to  be  conducted  according  to  the  best  practice  and  usage  of  the  profession, 
as  evidenced  by  its  having  received  the  approval  of  the  Institute,  nor  should  he  continue 
to  act  as  professional  adviser  after  it  has  been  determined  that  the  program  cannot  be 
so  drawn  as  to  receive  such  approval.  When  an  architect  has  been  authorized  to  submit 
sketches  for  a  given  project,  no  other  architect  should  submit  sketches  for  it  until  the 
owner  has  taken  definite  action  on  the  first  sketches  since,  as  far  as  the  second  architect 
is  concerned,  a  competition  is  thus  established.  Except  as  an  authorized  competitor, 
an  architect  may  not  attempt  to  secure  work  for  which  a  competition  has  been  instituted. 
He  may  not  attempt  to  influence  the  award  in  a  competition  in  which  he  has  submitted 
drawings.  He  may  not  accept  the  commission  to  do  the  work  for  which  a  competition 
has  been  instituted  if  he  has  acted  in  an  advisory  capacity  either  in  drawing  the  program 
or  in  making  the  award. 

15.  On  Undertaking  the  Work  of  Others. 

An  architect  should  not  undertake  a  commission  while  the  claim  for  compensation 
or  damages  or  both,  of  an  architect  previously  employed  and  whose  employment  has 
been  terminated  remains  unsatisfied,  unless  such  claim  has  been  referred  to  arbitration 
or  issue  has  been  joined  at  law;  or  unless  the  architect  previously  employed  neglects  to 
press  his  claim  legally;  nor  should  he  attempt  to  supplant  a  fellow  architect  after  definite 
steps  have  been  taken  toward  his  employment. 

17.  On  Duties  to  Students  and  Draughtsmen. 

The  architect  should  advise  and  assist  those  who  intend  making  architecture  their 
career.  If  the  beginner  must  get  his  training  solely  in  the  office  of  an  architect,  the  latter 
should  urge  his  draughtsmen  to  avail  themselves  of  educational  opportunities.  He  should, 
as  far  as  practicable,  give  encouragement  to  all  worthy  agencies  and  institutions  for 
architectural  education.  While  a  thorough  technical  preparation  is  essential  for  the 
practice  of  architecture,  architects  cannot  too  strongly  insist  that  it  should  rest  upon 
a  broad  foundation  of  general  culture. 

18.  On  Duties  to  the  Public  and  to  Building  Authorities. 

An  architect  should  be  mindful  of  the  public  welfare  and  should  participate  in  those 
movements  for  public  betterment  in  which  his  special  training  and  experience  qualify 
him  to  act.  He  should  not,  even  under  his  client's  instructions,  engage  in  or  encourage 
any  practices  contrary  to  law  or  hostile  to  the  public  interest;  for  as  he  is  not  obliged  to 
accept  a  given  piece  of  work,  he  cannot,  by  urging  that  he  has  but  followed  his  client's 
.  instructions,  escape  the  condemnation  attaching  to  his  acts.  An  architect  should  sup- 
port all  public  officials  who  have  charge  of  building  in  the  rightful  performance  of  their 
legal  duties.  He  should  carefully  comply  with  all  building  laws  and  regulations,  and  if 
any  such  appear  to  him  unwise  or  unfair,  he  should  endeavor  to  have  them  altered. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 107 

19.    On  Professional  Qualifications. 

The  public  has  the  right  to  expect  that  he  who  bears  the  title  of  architecth  as  the 
knowledge  and  ability  needed  for  the  proper  invention,  illustration  and  supervision 
of  all  building  operations  which  he  may  undertake.  Such  qualifications  alone  justify 
the  assumption  of  the  title  of  architect. 

THE    ILLINOIS   SOCIETY   OF   ARCHITECTS   CANONS    OF    PROFESSIONAL 

ETHICS 

Preamble. 

The  architect  is  engaged  in  a  profession  which  carries  with  it  grave  responsibilities 
to  the  public.  These  duties  and  responsibilities  cannot  be  met  unless  the  motives,  conduct 
an  ability  of  the  members  of  the  profession  are  such  as  to  command  respect  and  confidence. 

The  profession  of  architecture  calls  for  men  of  the  highest  integrity,  and  executive 
and  artistic  ability. 

The  architect  is  entrusted  with  financial  undertakings  where  his  honesty  of  purpose 
must  be  above  suspicion;  he  acts  as  professional  adviser  to  his  client,  and  his  advice 
must  be  absolutely  disinterested;  he  is  charged  with  the  exercise  of  judicial  functions 
as  between  client  and  contractor,  and  must  act  with  entire  impartiality,  and  he  has  moral 
responsibilities  toward  his  professional  associates  and  subordinates. 

The  people  of  the  State  of  Illinois  have  a  right  to  expect  a  high  standard  of  practice 
and  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  architects  whom  they  have  licensed  to  practice.  Because 
an  architect  is  a  quasi  public  official  it  is  imperative  that  he  assume  no  obligations  which 
shall  place  official  duty  and  self-interest  in  conflict. 

The  Canon  of  Ethics 

No  set  of  rules  can  be  framed  which  particularize  all  the  duties  of  the  architect  in 
his  various  relations  to  the  public,  to  his  client,  to  the  building  trades  and  to  his  pro- 
fessional brother. 

The  following  canons  of  ethics  cover  certain  broad  principles  which  should  govern 
the  conduct  of  members  of  the  profession  and  should  serve  as  a  guide  in  circumstances 
other  than  those  enumerated : 

I.  On  Certain  Duties  to  the  Public. 

The  architect's  more  important  work  is  of  a  character  so  permanent  and  enduring 
that  he  owes  it  to  the  public  to  use  his  best  efforts  to  make  it  such  as  may  raise  the  stand- 
ard of  taste  in  the  community  and  be  in  itself  a  public  ornament.  He  should  design  with 
due  regard  to  surroundings  and  should  endeavor  to  check  any  individualism,  whether  in 
himself  or  his  client,  that  is  opposed  to  the  public  good.  He  should  take  part  in  those 
movements  for  public  betterment  in  which  his  training  and  experience  enable  him  to 
give  useful  service.  He  should  insist  on  safe  and  sanitary  construction  and  he  should 
at  all  times  hold  the  safe  guarding  of  human  life  and  health  as  of  paramount  importance 
to  the  interests  of  client,  contractor  or  self. 

II.  On  the  Architect's  Status. 

The  architect's  relation  to  his  client  is  primarily  that  of  professional  adviser.  This 
relation  maintains  throughout  the  period  of  his  service.  When,  however,  a  contract  is 
executed  between  his  client  and  a  builder  or  other  person  by  the  terms  of  which  the  archi- 
tect becomes  the  official  interpreter  of  its  conditions  and  the  judge  of  its  performance, 
a  new  relation  is  created.  In  respect  to  the  matters  under  contract,  it  is  incumbent 
upon  the  architect  to  side  neither  with  the  client  nor  contractor,  but  to  endeavor,  in  so 
far  as  his  action  may  determine,  that  the  contract  be  faithfully  carried  out  according 
to  its  true  spirit  and  intent. 

It  is  not  proper  for  the  architect  to  assume  to  act  as  the  owner's  agent  unless  he  has 
been  specifically  empowered  so  to  act:  by  so  doing  he  becomes  a  party  to  the  contract 
and  in  a  sense  disqualified  in  his  judicial  capacity. 


108 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

The  fact  that  the  architect's  payment  comes  through  the  client  does  not  invalidate 
his  professional  obligation  to  act  with  impartiality  to  both  parties  to  the  contract.  It 
is  essential,  however,  in  order  to  eliminate  the  influence  of  self-interest,  that  the  architect 
shall  not  enter  into  any  contract  with  the  client  which  shall  condition  his  payment  upon 
his  decisions  or  advice. 

III.  On  Preliminary  Drawings  and  Estimates. 

The  architect  should  impress  upon  his  client  at  the  outset  the  importance  of  suffi- 
cient time  for  the  study  and  preparation  of  drawings  and  specifications.  If,  on  the  basis 
of  approved  preliminary  sketches,  the  approximate  cost  of  the  work  has  been  mutually 
considered,  the  architect  should  endeavor  to  bring  his  working  drawings  to  meet  such 
approximate  cost,  provided  that  his  client  has  requested  no  departure  from  the  original 
basis  or  estimate.  But  at  the  same  time  he  should  acquaint  his  client  with  the  condi- 
tional character  of  preliminary  estimates.  Complete  and  final  figures  can  be  had  only 
from  complete  and  final  drawings  and  specifications.  If  an  unconditional  limit  of  cost  is 
imposed  before  such  drawings  are  made  and  estimated,  the  architect  must  be  free  to 
make  such  adjustments  as  seem  necessary  to  that  end. 

IV.  On  Superintendence  and  Expert  Service. 

On  all  work  except  the  simplest,  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  client  to  employ  an  inspec- 
tor or  clerk-of-the-works;  in  many  engineering  problems  and  in  certain  esthetic  problems 
such  as  sculpture,  decorative  painting,  gardening  and  the  like,  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the 
client  to  have  specialized  expert  service.  The  architect  should  so  inform  the  client  and 
assist  him  in  obtaining  such  service.  In  order  to  secure  unified  and  harmonious  working 
organizations,  only  such  persons  should  be  selected  by  the  owner  for  consulting  experts 
as  shall  work  in  harmony  with  the  architect  and  shall  be  approved  by  him. 

V.  On  the  Architect's  Charges. 

The  schedule  of  charges  of  the  Chicago  Architect's  Business  Association  is  recognized 
as  a  proper  minimum  of  payment,  but  where  no  other  architect  is  affected  it  is  allowable 
for  an  architect  to  make  such  an  arrangement  with  his  client  as  is  mutually  satisfactory. 
He  may  not  reduce  his  fee  below  the  schedule  of  charges  in  an  attempt  to  supplant  another 
architect;  it  is  reasonable  and  proper  to  charge  higher  rates  than  those  of  the  schedule 
when  his  special  skill  and  the  quality  of  his  service  justify  the  increase. 

A  system  of  compensation  based  on  the  actual  cost  to  the  architect  on  a  given  piece 
of  work  plus  an  agreed  professional  fee,  has  much  to  commend  it. 

VI.  On  Needless  Expenditure. 

The  architect  should  scrupulously  guard  cost,  and  refrain  from  introducing  needless 
expense  or  any  extravagance  in  material  or  construction  that  may  add  to  cost  of  building, 
without  compensating  gain  to  the  client. 

VII.  On  Payments  for  Expert  Service. 

When  retained  as  an  expert,  whether  in  connection  with  competitions  or  other- 
wise, the  architect  should  receive  a  compensation  proportionate  to  the  responsibility  and 
difficulty  of  the  service.  No  duty  of  the  architect  is  more  exacting  than  such  service, 
and  the  honor  of  the  profession  is  involved  in  it.  Under  no  circumstances  should  experts, 
knowingly,  name  prices  in  competition  with  each  other  for  a  given  employment.  Where 
governmental  regulations  prohibit  adequate  compensation  for  expert  service,  it  is  better 
to  render  such  service  without  emolument  than  to  accept  a  payment  out  of  proportion 
to  the  importance  of  the  service  rendered. 

VIII.  On  the  Selection  of  Bidders  or  Contractors. 

The  architect  should  advise  his  client  in  the  selection  of  bidders  and  in  the  award  of 
contract. 

In  selecting  none  but  worthy  bidders  and  in  advising  the  award  only  to  contractors 
who  are  honest  and  competent,  the  architect  protects  the  interests  of  his  client  and  helps 
to  raise  the  ethical  standard  in  building. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 109 

IX.  On  Duties  to  the  Contractor. 

On  the  signing  of  a  contract  between  owner  and  builder,  the  architect  is  placed  in  a 
judicial  position  and  is  bound  to  act  with  absolute  fairness;  he  is  also  judge  in  his  own 
right,  deciding  whether  or  not  the  intent  of  his  plans  or  specifications  is  properly  carried 
out,  and  exercising  his  judgment  as  to  the  true  meaning  thereof.  He  should,  therefore, 
take  special  care  to  see  that  these  drawings  and  specifications  are  complete  and  accurate, 
and  he  should  never  call  upon  the  contractor  to  make  good  his  own  oversights  or  errors, 
or  attempt  to  shirk  responsibility  by  ''blanket"  clauses. 

X.  On  Engaging  in  the  Building  Trades. 

The  architect  should  not  engage  in  any  of  the  building  trades,  nor  should  he  form 
any  trade  partnership  or  agreement  with  any  person  or  firm  connected  therewith;  nor 
should  he  have  any  financial  interests  in  any  building  material  or  device  of  such  a  nature 
as  to  render  his  professional  action  liable  to  suspicion  of  self-interest :  if  he  have  any  interest 
in  building  material  or  device  he  should  not  specify  or  use  the  same  without  the  full 
knowledge  and  approval  of  his  client. 

XI.  On    Accepting  Commission  or  Favors. 

The  Architect  may  not  receive  any  commission  or  any  substantial  service  or  favor 
from  a  dealer,  a  contractor,  or  from  any  interested  person  other  than  his  client. 

XII.  On  Encouraging  Good  Workmanship. 

In  his  authority  to  interpret  and  enforce  the  provisions  of  the  contract,  the  archi- 
tect is  vested  with  large  powers  which  he  should  use  with  unbiased  judgemnt.  While 
he  must  condemn  bad  work,  he  should  also  make  a  point  of  commending  that  which  is 
good. 

Intelligent  initiative,  artistic  or  mechanical,  on  the  part  of  craftsmen  and  workmen, 
should  be  promptly  recognized  and  encouraged,  and  the  architect  should  make  evident 
his  appreciation  of  the  dignity  and  importance  of  their  work. 

XIII.  On  Offering  Service  Gratuitously. 

The  offering  of  professional  service  on  approval  unless  warranted  by  personal  or 
previous  business  relations,  tends  to  lower  the  dignity  and  standing  of  the  profession: 
also  to  provide  motive  for  dishonest  representation  and  is  to  be  condemned. 

XIV.  On  Advertising. 

Advertising  in  any  form  is  to  be  discouraged  as  tending  to  lower  the  standing  of  the 
profession.  The  presentation  of  ordinary  business  cards  is  a  matter  of  individual  taste 
and  not  per  se  improper;  but  the  solicitation  of  work  by  circulars  or  advertisements 
and  the  inspiring  or  inserting  of  self-laudatory  notice  in  the  press  are  unprofessional. 

The  best  recommendation  of  an  architect  is  a  well-merited  reputation  for  professional 
capacity  and  fidelity  to  trust. 

XV.  On  Signing  Buildings  and  Use  of  Titles. 

The  signing  of  buildings  has  the  indorsement  of  the  Chicago  Architect's  Business 
Association.  The  use  of  the  initials  designing  degrees  or  technical  society  membership 
is  proper  in  connection  with  any  professional  service  and  is  encouraged  as  helping  to 
make  known  the  nature  of  the  honor  they  imply. 

XVI.  On  Competitions. 

In  no  way  does  the  architect  come  more  conspicuously  before  the  public  than  through 
competitions.  It  is  especially  desirable  that  in  such  circumstances  he  should  conduct 
himself  with  self-respect  and  dignity.  To  undervalue  and  cheapen  his  service  or  to  com- 
pete where  a  just  award  is  not  safeguarded  is  inconsistent  with  this  position.  Compe- 
titions are  undesirable  from  the  standpoint  of  both  the  client  and  the  architect  and  a 
member  of  the  Association  should  discourage  holding  of  same.  If  a  competition  becomes 
inevitable,  because  of  government  regulations,  he  should  not  enter  either  as  a  competitor 
or  a  professional  advisor  unless  the  competition  is  to  be  conducted  according  to  the  best 
practice  and  usage  of  the  profession  as  formulated  from  time  to  time  by  the  American 


110 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

Institute  of  Architects.  Except  as  an  authorized  competitor  he  may  not  attempt  to  secure 
work  for  which  competition  has  been  instituted. 

He  may  not  present  drawings  to  secure  work  for  which  competition  has  been  closed 
but  not  decided. 

He  may  not  attempt  to  influence  the  award  in  any  competition. 

XVII.  On  the  Expert's  Future  Status. 

An  architect  may  not  undertake  a  further  commission  on  any  building  or  work  after 
having  acted  in  an  expert  capacity  in  formulating  a  program  which  later  is  put  into 
effect,  or  after  having  acted  in  an  advisory  capacity  in  the  matter  of  awards  in  com- 
petition. Having  acted  in  either  or  both  of  such  capacities  should  bar  an  architect  from 
eligibility  to  execute  commissions  upon  the  work  in  question. 

XVIII.  On  Criticising  the  Work  of  Others. 

An  architect  may  not  criticise  publicly  in  the  press  the  work  of  a  fellow  architect 
except  over  his  own  signature,  or  editorially;  and  he  may  not  intentionally  injure,  directly 
or  indirectly,  the  reputation,  prospects  or  business  of  a  fellow  architect. 

XIX.  On  Undertaking  the  Work  of  Another. 

An  architect  may  not  undertake  a  commission  while  the  just  claim  of  a  fellow  archi- 
tect, who  had  previously  undertaken  it,  remains  unsatisfied;  nor  may  he  attempt  to  sup- 
plant a  fellow  architect  or  to  obtain  a  commission  after  steps  have  been  taken  toward 
the  appointment  of  another  architect. 

XX.  On  Duties  Toward  the  Student  Draughtsman. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  architect  to  advise  and  assist  those  who  intend  making  architec- 
ture their  career.  The  intending  student  should  be  urged  to  secure  a  preparation  of  broad 
general  culture  equivalent  to  that  required  for  the  degree  of  A.  B.,  concurrently  with 
or  followed  by  a  thorough  course  in  a  well  organized  school  of  architecture. 

In  cases  where  such  preparation  is  out  of  the  question  and  the  beginner  must  get  his 
training  in  the  office  of  an  architect,  the  latter  should  assist  him  to  the  best  of  his  ability 
by  instruction  and  advice.  An  architect,  should,  as  far  as  possible,  urge  his  draughtsmen 
to  avail  themselves  of  educational  opportunities.  To  this  end  he  should  give  encourage- 
ment to  all  worthy  schemes  and  institutions  for  architectural  education. 

Members  of  the  association  cannot  too  strongly  insist  that  a  thorough  technical 
preparation  for  the  practice  of  architecture  should  rest  upon  a  foundation  of  general 
culture. 

XXI.  On  Duties  Toward  Building  Authorities. 

The  architect  should  support  all  federal,  state  and  municipal  officials  who  have  charge 
of  matters  relating  to  building  and  endeavor  to  maintain  or  improve  the  standards  of 
their  departments.  His  quasi  public  official  capacity  requires  him  to  show  respect  for 
law  by  careful  and  conscientious  compliance  with  all  building  regulations,  and  if  any 
such  appear  to  him  unwise  or  unfair,  he  should  endeavor  to  have  such  regulations  altered, 
but  until  so  altered  he  should  comply  with  them.  An  architect  because  of  his  official 
relation  to  the  state  and  of  his  moral  obligation  should  not  even  under  his  client's  instruc- 
tions encourage  any  practices  contrary  to  law  or  hostile  to  public  interest;  for  he  is  not 
obliged  to  accept  a  given  piece  of  work,  hence  he  cannot  urge  in  extenuation  and  to 
escape  the  condemnation  attaching  to  his  acts  that  he  has  but  followed  his  client's  instruc- 
tions. 

XXII.  On  Professional  Qualifications. 

The  assumption  of  the  title  of  architect  should  be  held  to  mean  that  the  bearer  has 
the  professional  knowledge,  both  theoretical  and  practical,  and  the  natural  ability  needed 
for  the  proper  invention,  illustration  and  supervision  of  all  building  operations  which 
he  may  undertake. 

XXIII.  On  Matter  Adjudged  Unprofessional. 

The  following  code,  based  on  a  report  of  a  special  committee  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute of  Architects,  is  adopted  by  the  Chicago  Architect's  Business  Association  as  a  general 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS  111 


guide,  yet  the  enumeration  of  particular  duties  should  not  be  construed  as  the  denial  of 
the  existence  of  others  equally  imperative  though  not  specifically  mentioned.    It  should 
also  be  noted  that  these  sections  indicate  offenses  of  greatly  varying  degrees  of  gravity: 
It  is  unprofessional  for  an  architect — 

1.  To  engage  in  any  of  the  building  trades  or  to  form  any  trade  partnership  or 
agreement  with  any  person  or  firm  engaged  therein. 

2.  To  guarantee  an  estimate  or  contract  by  bond  or  otherwise. 

3.  To  accept  a  commission  or  any  substantial  service  or  favor  from  a  contractor, 
or  anyone  connected  with  the  building  trades. 

4.  To  advertise  in  any  form. 

5.  To  enter  any  competition  the  terms  of  which  are  not  in  harmony  with  principles 
approved  by  the  American  Institute,  especially  if  such  terms  have  been  specifically  con- 
demned by  the  American  Institute  or  a  local  chapter  thereof. 

6.  To  attempt  in  any  way  except  as  a  duly  authorized  competitor  to  secure  work 
for  which  a  competition  has  been  instituted. 

7.  To  attempt  to  influence  the  award  of  a  competition. 

8.  To  injure  intentionally  the  fair  reputation,  prospects  or  business  of  another 
architect. 

9.  To  criticise  anonymously  in  the  public  prints,  except  editorially,  the  professional 
conduct  or  work  of  a  fellow  architect. 

10.  To  undertake  a  commission  while  the  just  claim  of  another  architect  who  has 
previously  undertaken  it  remains  unsatisfied. 

11.  To  attempt  to  supplant  a  fellow  architect  after  definite  steps  have  been  taken 
toward  his  employment. 

12.  To  offer  or  perform  services  at  rates  lower  than  those  approved  as  minimum 
by  the  Chicago  Architects'  Business  Association  in  an  attempt  to  supplant  or  underbid 
another  architect. 

13.  To  act  in  a  manner  detrimental  to  the  best  interests  of  the  profession. 

Just  as  we  go  to  press  the  Western  Architect  publishes  the  following  letters  and 
discussions  on  the  question  of  ethics  which,  we  believe,  will  be  of  interest  to  those  who 
may  have  an  interest  in  this  subject. 

A  QUESTION  OF  ETHICS 

Being  a  discussion  of  the  subject  of  competitions,  regulated  and  otherwise,  and  the 
questions  of  business-getting  policy  which  has  created  great  interest  among  the  members 
of  the  Illinois  Society  of  Architects,  and  is  open  to  the  consideration  of  all  readers  of  the 
Western  Architect. 

When  a  member  of  the  Illinois  Society  of  Architects  last  fall  wrote  to  President  F.  E. 
Davidson,  raising  a  question  of  professional  ethics,  he  started  a  discussion  which  has 
been  of  intense  interest  to  the  profession  in  the  state.  A  wide  divergence  of  opinion  has 
developed,  involving  the  question  of  competitions  and  the  proper  procedure  of  seeking 
business. 

Originally  the  question  involved  that  of  taking  part  in  an  "unregulated"  competition 
in  which  an  owner  desired  competitive  plans  for  which  he  proposed  to  pay  and  from  which 
he  would  make  his  selection.  President  Davidson  submitted  the  letter  to  a  number  of 
the  prominent  practitioners  in  Illinois,  and  a  most  interesting  discussion  resulted.  Some 
of  these  letters  are  reprinted  because  of  the  interest  they  have  aroused  in  Illinois  as  a  result 
of  their  publication  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Illinois  Society  of  Architects.  The  question 
is  now  open  to  discussion  among  the  readers  of  The  Western  Architect. 


H2 P   U   B   L   I   C        S  C   H   0   0    L   S 

Addressed  to  President  Davidson,  the  first  letter  written  by  Irving  K.  Pond,  past 
president  of  the  American  institute  of  Architects,  Chicago,  is  .is  follows: 

By  his  flippant  and  mildly  contemptuous  reference  to  his  ethical  architectural 
friends,  I  judge;  thai  the  writer  of  the  Idler  published  under  the  caption,  A  Question  of 
Ethics,  in  the  November  Bulletin,  and  on  which  you  desire  comment  by  me,  is  not  himself 
at  heart  inclined  to  be  more  than  relatively  ethical;  otherwise  he  would  know  how  to  act 
under  given  conditions  and  would  have  no  need  to  seek  light  in  the  Bulletin.  If  he  is  a 
member  of  an  Architectural  Society  which  has  pronounced  upon  the  subject  he  will  follow 
the  mandates  of  that  Society.  If  he  is  outside  such  a  Society  he  will,  perhaps,  act  as  his 
conscience  dictates.  In  either  ease  lie  will  do  well  to  be  wary  of  any  Owner  (with  a  big 
O)  who  "realizes"  that  his  proposed  action  is  not  in  accord  with  the  Architects'  idea  of 
his  professional  practice  and  suggests  that,  to  do  business,  or  to  be  allowed  an  uneven 
chance  to  do  business,  the  Architect  "reconcile  his  ideas  of  ethics  with  the  Owner's  wishes 
and  ideas  of  service."  The  Architect  may  well  avoid  business  relations  with  a  client 
who  is  not  willing  to  guarantee  conditions  of  fair  play  in  a  competition  unto  which  he 
invites  architects;  but  who  invites  them,  rather,  on  the  basis  that  they  are  to  reconcile 
their  ideas  of  ethics  with  his  personal  whims  and  desires, — and  who  will  not  head  his 
personal  whims  and  desires  to  recognized  standards  of  right  as  between  man  and  man. 
The  American  Institute  of  Architects  has  formulated  from  long  years  of  practice  and 
experience,  a  standard,  which,  if  followed,  will  protect  the  client  against  the  unworthy 
Architect  and  the  Architect  against  the  selfish  and  tricky,  not  to  say  dishonorable,  client. 
The  Institute  cannot  set  any  standard  "once  and  for  all"  which  "all  architects"  will 
live  up  to  all  the  time  or  any  of  the  time,  until  all  architects  entertain  convictions  and 
hold  principles  for  which  they  are  willing  to  sacrifice  something. 

My  advice  to  the  young  and  inexperienced  writer  of  the  letter  in  question  is  to  follow 
Institute  Standards  until  something  better  is  devised. 

Yours  sincerely, 

Irving  K.  Pond, 
Past  President  A.  I.  A. 

Robert  C.  Spencer,  Jr.,  F.  A.  I.  A.,  in  a  letter  published  later,  had  this  to  say: 
To  F.  E.  Davidson, 

President,  Illinois  Society  of  Architects: 
My  Dear  Mr.  Davidson: 

Sometine  ago  I  promised  you  that  I  would  write  a  letter  for  publication  in  the  Bulle- 
tin, apropos  of  the  question  raised  by  a  member  of  the  Illinois  Society  of  Architects  who 
wanted  light  on  the  subject  of  unregulated  competition. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  there  is  a  decided  lack  of  unanimous  opinion  among  members 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects  concerning  those  of  its  Canon  of  Ethics  which  have 
to  do  with  questions  of  business-getting  policy,  rather  than  with  morality  and  integrity 
of  professional  conduct. 

According  to  Webster's  Unabridged  Dictionary,  a  code  of  ethics  may  not  necessa- 
rily prescribe  a  right  course  of  action.  Quoting  from  Dr.  John  Dewey  in  "The  Americana," 
"In  its  historical  development,  ethics  has  been  regarded  as  a  branch  of  philosophy,  as 
a  science,  and  as  an  art, — often  as  a  composite  of  two  or  all  of  these  in  varying  proportions." 

And  again,  "Ethics  as  an  art  is  concerned  with  discovering  and  formulating  rules 
of  acting  in  accordance  with  which  men  may  attain  their  end.  These  rules  may  be  con- 
sidered as  of  a  nature  either  of  injunctions  or  commands,  which  prescribe  as  well  as  instruct; 
or  as  technical  formulae  which  indicate  to  the  individual  the  best  way  of  proceeding 
toward  a  desired  result,  thus  not  differing  in  kind  from  rules  of  painting  or  of  carpentry." 

And  again,  "As  may  be  readily  inferred,  some  of  the  most  serious  problems  of  ethics 
at  present  arc  concerned  with  defining  and  delimiting  its  own  scope,  bases  and  aims." 

The  long  article  by  this  eminent  philosopher  and  writer  from  which  these  paragraphs 
are  quoted,  closes  as  follows: 

"But  as  ethical  writers  become  more  habituated  to  evolutionary  ideas,  they  will 
cease  setting  up  ideals  of  an  Utopian  millennium,  with  only  one  end  and  law;  and  will 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 113 

devote  themselves  to  studying  the  conditions  and  effects  of  the  changing  situations  under 
which  men  actually  live." 

Right  here  I  say  frankly  that  I  have  never  believed  that  certain  injunctions  of  the 
so-called  "Code  of  Ethics"  of  the  American  Institute  wore  particularly  ethical  from  the 
moral  viewpoint;  that  they  were  any  more  ethical  than  certain  working  rules  of  the 
organized  building  trades. 

But,  when,  without  any  expressed  dissent  or  reservation,  we  join  the  body  which 
has  adopted  this  code,  we  tacitly  agree  as  a  condition  of  our  newly  acquired  status,  that 
we  will  abide  by  the  rules  of  the  organization.  And  the  breaking  of  an  implied  agreement 
is  unquestionably  a  moral  question;  and  there's  the  rub. 

Yet  it  is  plain,  that,  insofar  as  it  hampers  them  in  their  methods  of  seeking  to  obtain 
new  business  in  ways,  that,  however  undesirable,  are  at  least  in  their  nature  not  necessa- 
rily unfair  or  dishonorable,  the  "Code"  does  not  trouble  a  lot  of  our  very  competent, 
efficient  and  successful  fellow  menbers — not  very  noticeably. 

There  are  also  some  very  talented,  competent  and  efficient  gentlemen  in  our  pro- 
fession who  will  not  join,  each  preferring  to  act  as  his  own  censor,  in  matters  of  professional 
practice  and  conduct. 

The  code  "condemns"  doing  work  gratis  in  order  to  obtain  commissions.  Further 
on,  it  sanctions  competitions  of  a  certain  prescribed  form  (we  may  call  them  "regulated" 
or  "regular"  competition)  and  condemns  all  others,  making  it  very,  very  umprofessional 
to  enter  them  except  unwittingly,  when  of  course,  the  sin  may  be  forgiven. 

Yet  entering  any  regulated  competition,  except  as  one  of  those  rare  ones  in  which 
each  competitor  is  fully  paid,  certainly  involves  doing  work  gratis  in  the  hope  of  obtaining 
a  commission  as  most  of  us  can  testify. 

Brother  Pond,  Brother  Jensen  and  Brother  Hall,  I  do  not  question  that  in  an  ideal 
community,  the  ideal  architect  would  sit  in  his  atelier  and  calmly  welcome  each  new  and 
excellent  client  as  he  came  in,  with  never  a  thought  of  the  morrow,  as  to  prospective  clients. 

In  Utopia  the  job  will  always  seek  the  Architect,  but  Utopia  is  a  long  ways  from 
Michigan  Boulevard. 

It  is  just  because  so  many  talented  architects  are  such  poor  salesmen  or  so  afraid 
to  try  salesmanship,  that  mediocre,  but  more  pushing  and  less  scrupulous  men,  also  a 
lot  of  "  art-shitccks "  are  building  up  our  city  in  all  the  ugliness  of  its  prevailing  half- 
baked  architecture,  and  riding  in  super-sixes. 

The  salesman  today  is  a  bigger  man  than  the  producer,  bigger  at  least,  according  to 
popular  standards. 

Some  one  has  said- that  an  architect  is  a  draftsman  with  a  "job." 

"What  is  an  architect  without  a  job?"  Probably  a  member  of  the  Institute  trying 
to  live  up  to  the  Code  during  a  period  of  dullness  instead  of  going  out  and  starting  some- 
thing. 

Now,  let  us  hear  from  Brother  Maher  and  some  of  the  others  who  are  not  quite  sure, 
either. 

Hoping  that  I  may  have  the  privilege  of  saying  a  word  about  competitions  in  a  later 
issue,  I  am, 

Yours  very  truly, 

ROBERT  C.  SPENCER,  JR.,  F.  A.  I.  A. 

The  latest  contribution  is  that  of  George  W.  Maher,  F.  A.  T.  A.,  who  writes  in  part 
as  follows: 

It  is  gratifying  to  note  that  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  Illinois  Society  of  Architects 
is  performing  a  real  service  in  obtaining  various  opinions  and  viewpoints  of  members  of 
the  Institute  in  respect  to  the  query  propounded  by  a  member  of  the  Society. 

The  question  seemed  a  frank  statement  on  the  part  of  the  member  who  wished  to 
be  informed  on  the  general  professional  opinion  regarding  unregulated  competitions.  The 
gentleman  certainly  "started  something"  and  we  owe  him  thanks  and  especially  the 
President  of  the  Illinois  Society,  for  obtaining  and  publishing  opinions  from  members  of 
the  A.  I.  A.  on  this  vital  issue.    The  inquiry  in  question  has  already  been  answered,  but 


114 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

Brother  Spencer  in  his  excellent  article  suggests  that  there  should  be  more  general  discus- 
sion of  the  principles  involved,  and  in  this  idea  I  fully  accord  with  him. 

The  subject  is  certainly  a  vexatious  one,  since  it  presents  broad  issues  of  a  debatable 
nature  and  each  viewpoint,  is  subject  to  a  constant  change  as  methods  and  conditions 
alter  in  the  business  world  of  action.  I  shall  attempt  to  present  briefly,  the  issues  as  I 
understand  them.  In  my  judgment  the  subject  is  too  involved  and  far  reaching  in  results 
to  formulate  any  decisive  opinion  until  discussed  by  the  profession  at  large.  Without 
question  of  doubt  the  purpose  of  the  code  of  ethics  of  the  Institute  and  also  the  Illinois 
Society,  as  related  to  unregulated  competitions  originated  in  the  desire  to  assist  the 
architect  in  obtaining  from  the  client  and  public,  intelligent  and  proper  recognition,  also 
a  commensurate  competence  for  professional  work  performed  of  a  technical  nature.  It 
is  of  general  opinion  that  the  architect  has  not  always  been  treated  properly  or  paid 
adequately  for  skilled  services  rendered  as  compared  with  other  professions  or  other 
types  of  business.  Therefore,  the  lack  of  knowledge  or  seeming  ignorance  on  the  part  of 
the  public  in  regard  to  what  really  constitutes  the  qualities  of  an  architect  had  to  be 
valiently  met,  and  it  seemed  necessary  and  wise  for  the  Institute,  after  careful  delibera- 
tion to  bring  into  force  stringent  rules  and  codes  of  professional  conduct  in  order  to  guide 
the  members  in  their  general  practice.  In  addition  to  this,  the  observance  of  an  accepted 
code  by  architects  affiliated  with  the  Institute  would  tend  to  enlighten  the  public  to  a 
realization  of  the  difference  in  standing,  character  and  ability  between  certain  types  of 
architectural  practitioners. 

There  are  men  posing  as  architects  who  are  totally  devoid  of  the  training  or  quali- 
fications of  an  architect.  This  type  of  "free  booter"  roams  about  at  will,  preying  on  the 
ignorant  and  credulous  building  public.  They  are  a  menace  to  society,  as  their  work 
and  actions  usually  attest.    They  are  members  of  no  organized  society  of  architects. 

In  contrast  to  this  class  is  the  strictly  professional  architect,  who  is  recognized  by 
his  fellows  as  being  a  man  of  principle  and  education  and  who  is,  therefore,  eligible  to 
membership  in  organized  societies  of  architects. 

It  certainly  should  be  the  desire  of  all  members  of  the  American  Institute  and  the 
Illinois  Society  to  practice  according  to  the  code  until  something  better  has  been  evolved 
from  the  heart  and  mind  of  these  associations  and  properly  indorsed  by  them.  Such  an 
observance  will  differentiate  the  real  professional  architect  from  the  pretender  and  will 
assist  in  elevating  the  standing  of  the  profession,  and  thus  be  of  general  benefit  to  the 
public  at  large. 

The  problem  we  are  really  facing  today  is  how  to  continually  pursue  this  policy, 
which  we  must  admit  has  its  splendid  qualities  for  good,  and  yet  not  place  too  much 
hardship  on  the  struggling  architect,  and  especially  the  young  man  at  the  commencement 
of  his  professional  career.  It  certainly  should  not  be  the  purpose  of  any  code  of  ethics 
to  discourage  an  architect  who  is  a  member  from  obtaining  legitimate  work  by  employing 
his  genius  as  he  considers  it  best  to  meet  the  conditions  presented.  It  is  not  right  totally 
to  ignore  new  and  progressive  business  situations  as  they  continually  arise.  Many  a 
man  has  been  brought  into  a  life  a  real  service,  by  some  single  chance  or  opportunity 
which  might  have  been  denied  him  if  curtailed  by  stringent  professional  ethics  or  dogma 
which  governed  and  controlled  his  actions.  There  is  a  psychological  moment  in  all  phases 
of  human  phenomena  which  must  be  taken  strictly  into  account  at  a  certain  prescribed 
time  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  definite  constructive  conclusion  desired. 

It  therefore  is  a  dangerous  policy  for  any  organization  to  discourage  the  competitive 
habit.  Such  a  procedure,  if  carried  to  its  ultimate  conclusion,  dulls  the  wits,  strangles 
creative  impulses  and  makes  "laggards"  in  the  world  of  action.  Competition  and  De- 
mocracy go  hand  in  hand  and  a  sane  competition,  in  order  to  obtain  opportunity  for  work, 
should  be  encouraged  by  the  profession. 

The  same  is  true  of  proper  advertising.  I  may  hold  an  advanced  view  on  this  mooted 
subject,  but  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  a  great  profession  actually  engaged  in  the  service 
of  mankind  should  not  nor  has  it  a  right  to  be  compelled  to  hide  its  light  under  a  bushel. 
Advertising  is  a  permanent  institution,  a  great  and  legitimate  profession,  and  therefore  the 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS  115 


American  Institute  of  Architects  and  the  Illinois  Association  should  avail  itself  of  oppor- 
tunities presented  in  order  to  be  in  tune  and  in  step  with  progressive  America. 

We  are  organized  together  primarily  to  assist  in  the  right  upbuilding  and  beautifying 
of  our  communities  and  cities.  In  order  to  do  this  as  professional  men,  we  agree  to  accept 
certain  responsibilities  which  must  be  adhered  to  in  order  to  best  achieve  the  results 
desired.  Let  us,  therefore,  approach  any  discussion  of  the  problem  with  an  open  mind 
and  hold  only  to  those  canons  of  ethics  which  will  advance  the  opportunity  and  usefulness 
of  the  trained  architect.  In  the  spirit  of  this  method  of  procedure  will  the  profession 
perform  its  services  best  for  the  ultimate  good  of  the  public,  I  am, 

Yours  very  truly, 

GEORGE  W.  MAHER,  F.  A.  I.  A. 

ARCHITECTURAL  COMPETITIONS 

A  Circular  of  Advice  and  Information  Issued  by  the  American  Institute  of 

Architects. 

Authorized  by  the  43d  Annual  Convention  at  Washington,  D.  C,  December  14-16, 
1909.  Issued  March  30,  1910.  Amended  June  10,  1910,  and  January  3,  1911.  Ratified 
by  the  44th  Annual  Convention  at  San  Francisco,  January  16-21,  1911.  Reaffirmed 
by  the  45th  Annual  Convention  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  December  12-14,  1911.  Amended 
January  3,  1912,  as  authorized  by  the  Convention.  Amended  December  9,  1912,  and 
ratified  by  the  46th  Annual  Convention  at  Washington,  D.  C,  December  10-12,  1912. 

Fourth  Edition,  January  First,  1913. 
This  circular  furnishes  information  as  to  the  best  methods  of  conducting  architectural 
competitions  and  states  the  conditions  which  are  prerequisite  to  participation  in  them 
by  members  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects. 

THE  ATTITUDE  OF  THE  AMERICAN  INSTITUTE  OF  ARCHITECTS  TO 

COMPETITIONS 

Since  its  foundation  more  than  fifty  years  ago,  the  American  Institute  of  Architects 
has  given  much  attention  to  the  conduct  of  architectural  competitions.  These  contests, 
generally  needless  and  always  too  numerous,  were  for  many  years  conducted  without 
proper  regulation  and  often  in  disregard  of  the  interests  both  of  the  owner  and  of  the 
competitors.  The  owner,  totally  unfamiliar  with  the  intricacies  of  the  subject,  assumed, 
without  skilled  assistance,  to  prepare  the  program,  laying  down,  or  more  frequently 
ignoring,  rules  to  govern  procedure. 

Architects  were  led  by  many  reasons  to  enter  such  competitions.  Some  needed  work 
and  were  compelled  to  take  any  chance  to  obtain  it.  Many  enjoyed  the  contest,  some 
the  exercise  of  solving  an  interesting  problem.  Architects  have,  however,  learned  that 
the  outcome  of  a  competition  is  largely  a  matter  of  chance  and  that  the  method  rarely 
produces  results  in  the  building  better  than  those  obtained  by  direct  selection.  The 
owner  has,  to  be  sure,  a  choice  of  designs,  but  he  is  no  more  likely  to  make  the  wisest 
selection  or  to  obtain  the  best  building  than  if  he  selects  his  architect  directly,  guided 
by  the  results  previously  achieved  by  the  men  he  is  considering. 

For  certain  work,  expecially  that  of  a  public  nature,  there  may,  however,  be  reasons 
for  holding  a  competition.  When  a  competition  is  necessary,  it  should  be  of  such  form  as 
to  establish  equitable  relations  between  the  owner  and  the  competitors. 

To  insure  this: 

(1).  The  requirements  should  be  clear  and  definite,  and  the  statement  of  them, 
since  it  must  be  in  technical  terms,  should  be  drawn  by  one  familiar  with  such  terms. 

(2).  The  competency  of  all  competing  should  be  assured.  The  drawings  submitted 
in  a  competition  are  evidence,  only  in  part,  of  the  ability  of  the  architect  to  execute  the 
building.  The  owner,  for  his  own  protection,  should  admit  to  the  competition  only 
those  to  whom  he  would  be  willing  to  entrust  the  work;  that  is,  to  men  of  known  honesty 
and  competence. 


116 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

(3).  The  agreement  between  the  owner  and  the  competitors  should  be  definite,  as 
becomes  a  plain  statement  of  business  relations. 

(4).  The  judgment  should  be  based  on  knowledge  and,  since  ideas  presented  in  the 
form  of  drawings  are  intelligible  only  to  a  trained  mind,  judgment  should  not  be  rendered 
until  the  owner  has  received  competent  technical  advice  as  to  the  merits  of  those  ideas. 

To  sum  up:  To  insure  the  best  results  a  competition  should  have  (1)  a  clear  program 
(2)  competent  competitors,  (3)  a  business  agreement,  (4)  a  fair  judgment. 

Fifteen  years  ago  many  competitions  had  none  of  these  provisions  and  few  had  all 
of  them.  The  commonest  form  of  competition  was  one  that  was  open  to  all,  had  a  pro- 
gram prepared  by  a  layman,  was  judged  by  the  owner  without  professional  assistance, 
contained  no  agreement,  and  made  no  provision  to  eliminate  the  incompetent. 

The  Institute,  realizing  that  such  affairs  were  of  no  value  to  the  owner  and  were 
injurious  to  the  profession,  stated  the  principles  which  should  govern  the  conduct  of 
competitions.  This  statement,  corrected  and  improved  from  time  to  time,  was  an  excel- 
lent academic  treatise  to  which  all  readily  subscribed,  but  to  which  no  one  paid  any 
attention  if,  for  any  reason,  he  wished  to  enter  a  competition.  In  fact,  although  all 
believed  in  it,  few  were  willing  to  put  it  into  practice  unsupported.  To  make  the  prin- 
ciples operative  it  was  necessary  to  make  them  obligatory. 

With  the  growth  of  the  country,  the  increase  in  expenditures  for  public  and  private 
buildings,  and  the  increase  in  the  number  of  architects,  all  the  evils  of  ill  regulated  com- 
petitions became  more  marked  and  more  burdensome.  Programs  varied  from  loose  and 
careless  forms  difficult  to  understand  and  often  open  to  the  suspicion  that  only  the  initi- 
ated knew  what  they  meant,  to  over-elaborate  ones  necessitating  useless  study  of  details 
and  needless  drawings.  Those  instituting  the  competition  often  had  no  legal  authority 
to  pay  any  competitors,  still  less  to  employ  the  winner.  There  was  great  economic  waste, 
the  total  cost  of  participation  exceeding  the  total  net  profit  accruing  to  the  profession 
from  work  secured  through  competitions. 

All  this  demanded  correction.  The  Institute,  seeking  a  means  of  reform,  preceived 
at  once  that  its  relation  to  the  owner  could  be.  only  an  advisory  one.  It  might  urge  him 
not  to  hold  a  competition  or  it  might  advise  how  to  hold  one,  but  it  could  go  no  further. 
To  architects  in  general  the  Institute  could  scarcely  presume  to  offer  even  its  advice, 
but  being  a  professional  body  charged  with  maintaining  ethical  standards  among  its 
own  members  its  duty  was  to  see  that  they  did  not  take  part  in  competitions  that  fell 
below  a  reasonable  standard. 

The  Institute,  therefore,  as  a  first  step  put  itself  squarely  on  record  as  opposed  to 
competitions  on  the  ground  that  they  were  uncertain  in  their  results  and  wasteful  of  time 
and  money;  but  since  they  are  sometimes  necessary,  it  was  voted  in  convention  that 
members  should  be  free  to  take  part  in  them  when  their  terms  had  received  the  approval 
of  the  Institute.  Thereupon,  the  Institute  fully  stated  the  principles  which  should  govern 
competitions  and  defined  the  conditions  prerequisite  to  the  giving  of  its  approval.  These 
are  contained  in  the  Circular  of  Advice  here  following,  which  is  intended  as  a  guide  to 
all  who  are  interested  in  competitions.  Committees  of  the  Institute  throughout  the 
the  country  are  authorized  to  give  its  approval  to  competitions  when  properly  conducted, 
but  unless  a  program  has  received  such  approval,  members  of  the  Institute  do  not  accept 
a  position  as  competitor  or  juror,  nor  does  a  member  continue  to  act  as  professional 
adviser  after  it  becomes  evident  that  the  owner  will  not  permit  his  program  to  be  brought 
into  harmony  with  the  principles  approved  by  the  Institute. 

The  position  thus  taken  by  the  Institute  is  by  no  means  an  arbitrary  one  since  it 
governs  the  action  of  none  but  its  own  members.  To  the  owner,  its  service  has  been  of 
great  value  in  giving  him  information  and  useful  advice  and  in  saving  him  from  the  delays, 
cost  and  disappointment  incident  to  the  amateur  conduct  of  a  competition.  The  owner 
who  disregards  the  standard  set  by  the  Institute  finds  it  increasingly  difficult  to  get  men 
of  standing  in  the  profession  to  enter.  He  who  raises  his  program  to  that  standard  has 
no  difficulty  in  securing  the  services  of  architects  of  the  greatest  ability. 

Even  in  the  few  years  since  the  Institute  first  made  its  firm  stand  against  the  abuses 
of  competitions  the  effect  of  that  action  has  been  far  greater  than  could  have  been  fore- 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS  117 


seen.  It  has  not  altogether  eliminated  ill-regulated  competitions,  but  it  has  greatly 
reduced  their  number,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  no  competition  of  prime  importance  is 
now  conducted  except  in  accordance  with  the  principles  stated  n  the  following  Circular 
of  Advice. 

A  CIRCULAR  OF  ADVICE  AND  INFORMATION  RELATIVE  TO  THE  CONDUCT 

OF  ARCHITECTURAL  COMPETITIONS 

Competitions  are  instituted  to  enable  the  owner  to  choose  an  architect  through 
comparison  of  the  designs  submitted.  The  American  Institute  of  Architects,  believing 
that  the  interests  of  both  owner  and  competitors  are  best  served  by  fair  and  equitable 
agreements  between  them,  issues  this  circular  as  a  statement  of  the  principles  which 
should  underlie  such  agreements. 

The  Institute  does  not  assume  to  dictate  the  owner's  course  in  conducting  competi- 
tions, but  aims  to  assist  him  by  advising  the  adoption  of  such  methods  as  experience  has 
proved  to  be  just  and  wise. 

So  important,  however,  does  the  adoption  of  such  methods  appear  to  architects  that 
members  of  the  Institute  do  not  take  part  in  competitions  except  under  conditions  based 
on  this  circular  and  specifically  set  forth  in  Article  16  and  18. 

1.  On  Competitions  in  General.  * 

A  competition  exists  when  two  or  more  architects  prepare  sketches  at  the  same  time 
for  the  same  project. 

A  competition  when  properly  conducted,  is  a  means  for  the  selection  of  an  architect. 
As  an  incident,  a  good  preliminary  scheme  may  sometimes  be  obtained,  but  the  institute 
is  of  the  opinion  that  competitions  are  in  the  main  of  no  advantage  to  the  owner.  It 
therefore  recommends  that,  except  in  cases  in  which  competition  is  unavoidable,  an 
architect  be  employed  by  direct  selection  upon  the  sole  basis  of  his  fitness  for  work. 

2.  On  the  Employment  of  a  Professional  Adviser. 

No  competition  should  be  instituted  without  the  aid  of  a  competent  adviser.  He 
should  be  an  architect  of  the  highest  standing  and  his  selection  should  be  the  owner's 
first  step.  He  should  be  chosen  with  the  greatest  care,  as  the  success  of  the  competition 
will  depend  largely  upon  his  experience  and  ability. 

The  expert's  advice  is  of  great  value  to  the  owner,  for  example,  in  so  drawing  the 
program  as  to  safeguard  him  against  the  employment  of  an  architect  who  submits  a  design 
largely  exceeding  in  cost  of  execution  the  sum  at  his  disposal,  and  in  helping  him  to  avoid 
the  disappointment,  embarrassment  and  litigation  which  so  often  result  from  competitions 
conducted  without  expert  technical  advice. 

The  duties  of  the  expert  are  to  advise  those  who  hold  the  competition  as  to  its  form 
and  terms,  to  draw  up  the  program,  to  advise  in  choosing  the  competitors,  to  answer  their 
questions,  and  to  conduct  the  competition. 

Competitions  are  at  best  a  slow  and  expensive  method  of  choosing  an  architect, 
and  it  is  unwise  to  attempt  to  save  either  time  or  money  by  not  having  an  expert  adviser. 

3.  On  the  Forms  of  Competition. 

The  following  forms  of  competition  are  recognized: 

Limited. — In  this  form,  participation  is  limited  to  a  certain  number  of  architects 
whose  names  should  be  stated  in  the  program  and  to  any  one  of  whom  the  owner  is  willing 
to  entrust  the  work.  In  a  limited  competition,  the  competitors  may  be  chosen  (a)  from 
among  architects  whose  ability  is  so  evident  that  no  formal  inquiry  into  their  qualifications 
is  needed,  or  (b)  from  among  architects  who  make  application  accompanied  by  evidence 
of  their  education  and  experience. 

The  limited  form  has  the  advantage  that  the  owner  and  the  professional  adviser 
may  meet  competitors  and  discuss  the  terms  of  the  competition  with  them  before  the 
issuance  of  the  program.    Form  (a)  is  the  simplest  and  most  direct  form  of  competition. 

Open. — The  Institute  believes  that  a  competition  open  to  all  who  wish  to  participate 
without  regard  to  their  qualifications  is  detrimental  to  the  interests  alike  of  owner  and  of 


118 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

architects.  It  will  therefore  give  its  approval  to  that  form  only  when  conducted  in  two 
stages,  since  by  that  means  alone  is  it  possible  to  insure  anonymity  of  submission  while 
safeguarding  the  owner's  interests  against  the  selection  as  winner  of  a  person  lacking  the 
qualifications  set  forth  in  Article  4  hereof. 

In  this  form,  there  is  a  first  stage  open  to  all,  in  which  the  competitive  drawings  are 
of  the  slightest  nature,  involving  only  the  fundamental  ideas  of  the  solution.  These 
drawings  are  accompanied  by  evidence  of  the  competitor's  education  and  experience. 
From  the  first  stage,  a  small  number  who  have  thus  demonstrated  their  competence  to 
design  the  work  and  to  carry  it  successfully  into  execution,  are  chosen  to  take  part  in  a 
final  and  strictly  anonymous  stage  involving  competitive  drawings  of  the  type  indicated 
in  Article  8  hereof. 

This  form  of  competition  is  very  cumbersome  and  should  be  adopted  only  when  the 
law  requires  that  the  competition  shall  be  open  to  all  who  choose  to  take  part  in  it. 

4.  On  the  Qualification  of  Competitors. 

The  interests  of  the  owner  may  be  seriously  prejudiced  by  admitting  to  a  limited 
competition  or  to  the  second  stage  of  an  open  competition  any  architect  who  has  not 
established  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  owner  his  competence  to  design  and  execute  the  work. 

It  is  sometimes  urged  that,  by  admitting  all  who  wish  to  take  part,  some  unknown 
but  brilliant  designer  may  be  found.  If  the  object  of  a  competition  were  a  set  of  sketches, 
such  reasoning  might  be  valid.  But  sketches  give  no  evidence  that  their  author  has  the 
matured  artictic  ability  to  fulfil  their  promise,  or  that  he  has  the  technical  knowledge 
necessary  to  control  the  design  of  the  highly  complex  structure  and  equipment  of  a  modern 
building,  or  that  he  has  executive  ability  for  large  affairs  or  the  force  to  compel  the  proper 
execution  of  contracts.  Attempts  have  often  been  made  to  defend  the  owner's  interests 
by  associating  an  architect  of  ability  with  one  lacking  in  experience.  These  have  generally 
resulted  in  failure. 

As  the  owner  should  feel  bound,  not  only  legally,  but  in  point  of  honor,  to  retain 
as  his  architect  the  competitor  to  whom  the  award  is  made,  it  is  essential  that  the  com- 
petitors in  a  limited  competition  or  in  the  second  stage  of  an  open  competition  should  be 
selected  with  the  greatest  care  in  consultation  with  the  professional  adviser,  and  that 
there  should  be  included  among  them  only  architects  in  whose  ability  and  integrity  the 
owner  has  absolute  confidence,  and  to  any  one  of  whom  he  is  willing  to  entrust  the  work. 

5.  On  the  Number  of  Competitors. 

Experience  has  demonstrated  that  the  admission  of  many  competitors  is  detrimental 
to  the  success  of  a  competition.  When  there  are  many,  each  knows  that  he  has  but  a  slight 
chance  of  success,  and  he  is.  therefore  less  aroused  to  his  best  effort  than  when  there  are 
but  few.  As  the  owner  is  interested  only  in  the  best  result,  he  is  ill  advised  to  sacrifice 
quality  for  quantity. 

6.  On  Anonymity  of  Competitors. 

Absolute  and  effective  anonymity  is,  except  in  rare  cases,  a  necessary  condition  of  a 
fair  and  unbiased  competition.  Except  in  such  cases,  the  signing  of  drawings  should  not 
be  permitted  nor  should  they  bear  any  motto,  device  or  distinguishing  mark.  Drawings 
and  the  accompanying  sealed  envelopes  containing  their  authors'  names  should  be  num- 
bered upon  receipt,  the  envelopes  remaining  unopened  until  after  the  award. 

7.  On  the  Cost  of  the  Proposed  Work. 

No  statement  of  the  intended  cost  of  the  work  should  be  made  unless  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  the  work  as  described  in  the  program  can  be  properly  executed  within 
the  sum  named.  In  general  it  is  wiser  to  limit  the  cubic  contents  of  the  building  than 
to  state  a  limit  of  cost. 

The  program  should  neither  require  nor  permit  competitors  to  furnish  their  own  or 
builders'  estimates  of  the  cost  of  executing  the  work  in  accordance  with  their  design. 
Such  estimates  are  singularly  unreliable.  If  the  cubage  be  properly  limited  they  are 
unnecessary. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 119 

8.  On  the  Jury  of  Award.     . 

To  insure  a  wise  and  just  award  and  to  protect  the  interests  of  both  the  owner  and  the 
competitors,  the  competitive  drawings  should  be  submitted  to  a  jury  so  chosen  as  to  secure 
expert  knowledge  and  freedom  from  personal  bias. 

Such  a  jury  thoroughly  understands  and  can  explain  the  intent  of  the  drawings.  It 
discovers  from  them  their  authors'  skill  in  design,  arrangement  and  construction.  Because 
of  its  trained  judgment  its  advice  as  to  the  merits  of  the  designs  submitted  is  of  the  highest 
value  to  the  owner. 

The  jury  should  consist  of  at  least  three  members.  A  majority  of  the  jury  should 
be  architects,  one  or  more  of  whom  may  be  chosen  by  the  competitors. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  jury  to  study  carefully  the  program  and  all  conditions  relating 
to  the  problem  and  the  competition  before  examining  the  designs  submitted;  to  refuse 
to  make  or  recommend  an  award  in  favor  of  the  author  of  any  design  that  does  not  fulfil 
the  conditions  distinctly  stated  as  mandatory  in  the  program;  to  give  ample  time  to  the 
careful  study  of  the  designs;  and  to  render  a  decision  only  after  mature  consideration. 
The  jury  should  see  to  it  that  a  copy  of  its  report  reaches  every  competitor. 

The  professional  adviser  should  not  be  a  member  of  the  jury  as  his  judgment  is  apt 
to  be  influenced  by  his  previous  study  of  the  problem. 

9.  On  the  Competitive  Drawings. 

The  purpose  of  an  architectural  competition  is  not  to  secure  fully  developed  plans, 
but  such  evidence  of  skill  in  treating  the  essential  elements  of  the  problems  as  will  assist 
in  the  selection  of  an  architect.  The  drawings  should,  therefore,  be  as  few  in  number 
and  as  simple  in  character  as  will  express  the  general  design  of  the  building.  A  jury  of 
experts  does  not  need  elaborate  drawings. 

10.  On  the  Program. 

The  program  should  contain  rules  for  the  conduct  of  the  competition,  instructions 
for  competitors  and  the  jury,  and  the  agreement  between  the  owner  and  the  competitors. 
Uniform  conditions  for  all  competitors  are  fundamental  to  the  proper  conduct  of  com- 
petitions. Lengthy  programs  and  detailed  instructions  as  to  the  desired  accommodations 
should  be  avoided,  as  they  confuse  the  problem  and  hamper  the  competitors.  The  prob- 
lem should  be  stated  broadly.    Its  solutions  should  be  left  to  the  competitors. 

A  distinction  should  be  clearly  drawn  between  the  mandatory  and  the  advisory 
provisions  of  the  program,  i.  e.,  between  those  which  if  not  met  preclude  an  award  in 
favor  of  the  author  of  a  design  so  failing,  and  those  which  are  merely  optional  or  of  a 
suggestive  character.  The  mandatory  requirements  should  be  set  forth  in  such  a  way 
that  they  cannot  fail  to  be  recognized  as  such.  They  should  be  as  few  as  possible,  and 
should  relate  only  to  matters  which  cannot  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  competitors. 

It  is  difficult  to  summarize  briefly  the  program,  but  it  should  at  least : 

(a)  Name  the  owner  of  the  structure  forming  the  subject  of  the  competition,  and 
state  whether  the  owner  institutes  the  competition  personally  or  through  representatives. 
If  the  latter,  name  the  representatives,  state  how  their  authority  is  derived,  and  define 
its  scope. 

(b)  State  the  kind  of  competition  to  be  instituted,  and  in  limited  competitions 
name  the  competitors;  or  in  open  competitions,  if  the  competition  is  limited  geographically 
or  otherwise,  state  the  limits. 

(c)  Fix  a  time  and  place  for  the  receipt  of  the  designs.  The  time  should  not  be 
altered  except  with  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  competitors. 

(d)  Furnish  exact  information  as  to  the  site. 

(e)  State  the  desired  accommodation,  avoiding  detail. 

(f)  State  the  cost  if  it  be  fixed  or,  better,  limit  the  cubic  contents. 

(g)  Fix  uniform  requirements  for  the  drawings,  giving  the  number,  the  scale  or 
scales,  and  the  method  of  rendering. 

(h)     Forbid  the  submission  of  more  than  one  design  by  any  one  competitor. 


120  PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


(i)  Provide  a  method  for  insuring  anonymity  of  submission  unless  the  drawings 
are  to  be  signed. 

(j)  Name  the  members  of  the  jury  or  provide  for  their  selection.  Define  their 
powers  and  duties.  If  for  legal  reasons  the  jury  may  not  make  the  final  award,  state 
such  reasons  and  in  whom  such  power  is  vested. 

(k)  Provide  that  no  award  shall  be  made  in  favor  of  any  design  until  the  jury  shall 
have  certified  that  it  does  not  violate  any  mandatory  requirement  of  the  program. 

(1)  Provide  that  during  the  competition  there  shall  be  no  communication  relative  to 
it  between  any  competitor  and  the  owner,  his  representatives  or  any  member  of  the 
jury,  and  that  any  communication  with  the  professional  adviser  shall  be  in  writing. 
Provide  also  that  any  information,  whether  in  answer  to  such  communications  or  not, 
shall  be  given  in  writing  simultaneously  to  all  competitors.  Set  a  date  after  which  no 
questions  will  be  answered. 

(m)     State  the  number  and  amount  of  payments  to  competitors. 

(n)  Provide  that  the  professional  adviser  shall  send  a  report  of  the  competition 
to  each  competitor,  including  therein  the  report  of  the  jury. 

(o)  Provide  that  no  drawing  shall  be  exhibited  or  made  public  until  after  the  award 
of  the  jury  and  not  then  without  the  consent  of  the  author. 

(p)  Provide  for  the  return  of  unsuccessful  drawings  to  their  respective  authors 
within  a  reasonable  time. 

(q)  Provide  that  nothing  original  in  any  of  the  unsuccessful  designs  shall  be  used 
without  consent  of,  and  compensation  to,  the  author  of  the  design  in  which  it  appears. 

(r)     Include  the  contract  between  the  owner  and  the  competitors. 

(s)     Include  the  contract  between  the  owner  and  the  architect  receiving  the  award. 

11.     On  the  Agreement. 

An  owner  who  institutes  a  competition  assumes  a  moral  obligation  to  retain  one  of 
the  competitors  as  his  architect.  In  order  that  architects  invited  to  compete  may  deter- 
mine whether  they  will  take  part  it  is  essential  that  they  should  know  the  terms  upon 
which  the  winner  will  be  employed;  and  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  owner  that 
those  terms  should  be  so  clearly  defined  that  no  disagreement  as  to  their  meaning  can 
arise  after  the  award  is  made.  Unless  they  be  so  defined,  delay  is  likely  to  occur  and 
disagreements  to  arise  at  a  time  when  a  complete  understanding  between  owner  and 
architect  is  most  important  for  the  welfare  of  the  work. 

Therefore  there  must  be  included  in  the  program,  a  form  which  guarantees  the 
appointment  of  one  of  the  competitors  as  architect  and  provides  an  agreement  operative 
upon  that  appointment  defining  his  employment  in  terms  consonant  with  the  best  practice. 
This  must  conform  in  all  fundamental  respects  to  the  following: 

TYPICAL  FORM  OF  AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  OWNER  AND 

COMPETITORS 

In  consideration  of  the  submission  of  drawings  in  this  competition  (here  insert  the 
name  of  the  owner  or  of  the  body  duly  authorized  to  enter  into  contracts  on  behalf  of 
the  owner),  hereinafter  called  the  owner,  agrees  with  the  competitors  jointly  and  severally 
that  the  owner  will,  within  5  days  of  the  date  set  for  the  submission  of  drawings, 
make  an  award  of  the  commission  to  design  and  supervise  the  work  forming  the  subject 
of  this  competition  to  one  of  those  competitors  who  submit  drawings  in  consonance  with 
the  mandatory  requirements  of  this  program,  and  will  thereupon  pay  him,  on  account  of 
his  services  as  architect,  one-tenth  of  his  total  estimated  fee  as  stated  below.  And  further, 
in  consideration  of  the  submission  of  drawings  as  aforesaid,  and  the  mutual  promises 
enumerated  in  the  subjoined  "Conditions  of' Contract  between  Architect  and  Owner," 
the  owner  agrees  and  each  competitor  agrees,  if  the  award  be  made  in  his  favor,  immedi- 
ately to  enter  into  a  contract  containing  all  the  "Conditions"  here  following,  and  until 
such  contract  is  executed,  to  be  bound  by  the  said  "Conditions." 


P  U   B   L   I   C        S  C   H  O   O   L  S 121 

ARTICLE  I. 
CONDITIONS  OF  CONTRACT  BETWEEN  ARCHITECT  AND  OWNER 

Duties  of  the  Architect. 

1.  Design. 

The  architect  is  to  design  the  entire  building  and  its  immediate  surroundings  and 
is  to  design  or  direct  the  design  of  its  constructive,  engineering  and  decorative  work 
and  its  fixed  equipment  and,  if  further  retained,  its  movable  furniture  and  the  treatment 
of  the  remainder  of  its  grounds. 

2.  Drawings  and  Specifications. 

The  architect  is  to  make  such  revision  of  his  competitive  scheme  as  may  be  necessary 
to  complete  the  preliminary  studies;  and  he  is  to  provide  drawings  and  specifications 
necessary  for  the  conduct  of  the  work.  All  such  instruments  of  service  are  and  remain 
the  property  of  the  architect. 

3.  Administration. 

The  architect  is  to  prepare  or  advise  as  to  all  forms  connected  with  the  making  of 
proposals  and  contracts,  to  issue  all  certificates  of  payment,  to  keep  proper  accounts 
and  generally  to  discharge  the  necessary  administrative  duties  connected  with  the  work. 

4.  Supervision. 

The  architect  is  to  supervise  the  execution  of  all  the  work  committed  to  his  control. 

ARTICLE  II. 

1.  Payments. 

The  owner  is  to  pay  the  architect  for  his  services  a  sum  equal  to  six  per  cent  upon  the 
cost  of  the  work.    (The  times  and  amounts  of  payments  should  be  here  stated.) 

2.  Reimbursements. 

The  owner  is  to  reimburse  the  architect,  from  time  to  time,  the  amount  of  expense 
necessarily  incurred  by  him  or  his  deputies  while  traveling  in  the  discharge  of  duties 
connected  with  the  work. 

3.  Services  of  Engineers. 

The  owner  is  to  reimburse  the  architect  the  cost  of  the  services  of  engineers  for  heating, 
mechanical  and  electrical  work.  The  selection  of  such  engineers  and  their  compensation 
shall  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  owner. 

4.  Information,  Clerk-of-the-Works,  etc. 

The  owner  is  to  give  all  information  as  to  his  requirements;  to  pay  for  all  necessary 
surveys,  borings  and  tests,  and  for  the  continuous  services  of  a  clerk-of-the-works  whose 
competence  is  approved  by  the  architect. 

12.  On  Payments  to  Unsuccessful  Competitors. 

In  a  limited  competition  and  in  the  second  stage  of  an  open  competition  each  com- 
petitor, except  the  winner,  should  be  paid  for  his  services. 

13.  On  Legality  of  Procedure. 

It  is  highly  important  that  each  step  taken  in  connection  with  a  competition  and 
every  provision  of  the  program  should  be  in  consonance  with  law.  Those  charged  with 
holding  the  competition  should  know  and  state  their  authority.  If  they  are  not  empow- 
ered to  bind  their  principal  by  contracts  with  the  competitors,  they  should  seek  and 
receive  such  authority  before  issuing  an  invitation. 

If  authority  cannot  legally  be  granted  to  the  jury  to  make  the  award,  that  fact  should 
be  stated,  and  the  body  named  in  which  such  authority  is  vested. 

14.  On  the  Conduct  of  the  Owner. 

In  order  to  maintain  absolute  impartiality  toward  all  competitors,  the  owner,  his 
representatives  and  all  connected  with  the  enterprise  should,  as  soon  as  a  professional 
adviser  has  been  appointed,  refrain  from  holding  any  communication  in  regard  to  the 


122 PUBLIC        SCHO   O  L  S 

matter  with  any  architect  except  the  adviser  or  the  jurors.     The  meeting  with  com- 
petitors described  in  Article  3  is  of  course  an  exception. 

15.     On  the  Conduct  of  Architects. 

An  architect  should  not  attempt  in  any  way,  except  as  a  duly  authorized  competitor, 
to  secure  work  for  which  a  competition  is  in  progress,  nor  should  he  attempt  to  influence, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  the  award  in  a  competition  in  which  he  is  a  competitor. 

An  architect  should  not  accept  the  commission  to  do  the  work  for  which  a  competition 
has  been  instituted  if  he  has  acted  in  an  advisory  capacity,  either  in  drawing  the  program 
or  making  the  award. 

An  architect  should  not  submit  in  competition  a  design  which  has  not  been  pro- 
duced in  his  own  office  or  under  his  own  direction. 

No  competitor  should  enter  into  association  with  another  architect,  except  with  the 
consent  of  the  owner.  If  such  associates  should  win  the  competition,  their  association 
should  continue  until  the  completion  of  the  work  thus  won. 

During  a  competition,  no  competitor  should  hold  any  communication  relative  to  it 
with  the  owner,  his  representatives  or  any  member  of  the  jury,  nor  should  he  hold  any 
communication  with  the  professional  adviser,  except  it  be  in  writing. 

When  an  architect  has  been  authorized  to  submit  sketches  for  a  given  project,  no 
other  architect  should  submit  sketches  for  it  until  the  owner  has  taken  definite  action 
on  the  first  sketches,  since,  as  far  as  the  second  architect  is  concerned,  a  competition  is 
thus  established. 

1G.     On  the  Participation  of  Members  of  the  Institute. 

Members  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects  do  not  take  part  as  competitors 
or  jurors  in  any  competition,  the  program  of  which  has  not  received  the  formal  approval 
of  the  Institute,  nor  does  a  member  continue  to  act  as  professional  adviser  after  it  has 
been  determined  that  the  program  cannot  be  so  drawn  as  to  receive  such  approval. 

17.  Committees. 

In  order  that  the  advice  of  the  Institute  may  be  given  to  those  who  seek  it  and  that 
its  approval  may  be  given  to  programs  in  consonance  with  its  principles,  the  Institute 
maintains  the  following  committees: 

(a)  The  Standing  Committee  on  Competitions,  representing  the  Institute  in  its 
relation  to  competitions  generally.  This  committee  advises  the  subcommittees  and 
directs  their  work  and  they  report  to  it. 

(b)  A  subcommittee  for  the  territory  of  each  Chapter,  representing  the  Institute 
in  its  relation  to  competitions  for  work  to  be  erected  within  such  territory. 

The  President  of  the  Chapter  is  ex-officio  chairman  of  the  subcommittee,  the  other 
members  of  which  he  appoints.  The  subcommittees  derive  their  authority  from  the 
Institute  and  not  from  the  Chapters. 

An  appeal  from  the  decision  of  a  subcommittee  may  be  made  to  the  Standing  Com- 
mittee and  thence  to  the  Board  of  Directors.  The  Standing  Committee  may  approve, 
modify  or  annul  the  decision  of  a  sub-committee,  and  the  Board  has  like  powers  over  the 
decisions  of  the  Standing  Committee. 

18.  The  Institute's  Approval  of  the  Program. 

The  approval  of  the  Institute  is  not  given  to  a  program  unless  it  meet  the  following 
essential  conditions: 

(a)  That  there  be  a  professional  adviser  as  called  for  in  Article  2  of  this  circular. 

(b)  That  the  competition  be  of  one  of  the  forms  described  in  Article  3. 

(c)  That  the  program  contain  an  Agreement  and  Conditions  of  Contract  between 
Architect  and  Owner  in  conformity  with  those  printed  in  Article  1 1  of  this  circular,  that 
it  include  no  provision  at  variance  therewith  and  that  it  contain  terms  of  payments  in 
accord  with  good  practice. 

(d)  That  the  program  make  provision  for  a  jury  of  at  least  three  persons  as  described 
in  Article  8. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 123 

(e)     That  the  program  conform  in  all  particulars  to  the  spirit  of  this  circular. 

When  the  program  meets  the  above  essential  conditions,  the  approval  of  the  Institute 
may  be  given  to  it  by  the  sub-committee  for  the  territory  in  which  the  work  is  to  be 
erected,  or  if  there  be  no  sub-committee  for  that  territory,  then  by  the  Standing  Com- 
mittee on  Competitions. 

If  for  legal  or  other  reasons,  the  Standing  Committee  deem  that  deviations  from  the 
essential  conditions  are  justified,  it  may  recommend  to  the  Board  of  Directors  the  appro- 
val of  a  program  containing  such  deviations.  Power  to  give  approval  in  such  cases  is, 
however,  vested  only  in  the  Board. 

The  Professional  Adviser,  when  duly  authorized  in  writing  by  the  proper  com- 
mittee, may  print  the  Institute's  approval  as  a  part  of  the  program  or  otherwise  com- 
municate it  to  those  invited  to  compete. 

19.     Definitions  and  Exceptions. 

A  competition  exists  when  two  or  more  architects  prepare  sketches  at  the  same  time 
for  the  same  project. 

This  circular  does  not  apply  to  competitions  for  work  to  be  erected  elsewhere  than 
in  the  United  States,  its  territories  and  possessions. 

If  in  a  limited  competition  all  competitors  who  are  members  of  the  Institute  sign 
a  statement  that  the  program  is  in  accord  with  the  "Essential  Conditions"  of  Article 
18  of  this  circular,  and  an  acceptance  of  all  responsibility,  and  send,  before  entering  the 
competition,  such  statement  and  acceptance,  together  with  a  copy  of  the  program,  to 
the  Standing  Committee  on  Competitions  and  to  the  proper  sub-committee,  no  other 
action  is  required. 

Xo  architect  who  is  employed  to  make  sketches  at  the  rate  named  in  Article  9  of  the 
schedule  of  charges  shall  be  held  as  having  taken  part  in  a  competition. 

The  foregoing  gives  a  fair  idea  of  the  Architects  opinion  of  competitions  and  the 
proper  method  of  procedure  if  a  competition  is  deemed  necessary,  however,  School  Boards 
will  find  it  much  more  satisfactory  to  quietly  investigate  the  work  of  various  Architects 
and  from  their  investigation  make  the  selection  without  calling  in  many  Architects  in 
competition.  There  own  time  will  not  be  taken  up  to  such  an  extent  and  the  various 
Architects  who  might  be  called  in  will  not  only  have  their  time  saved  but  their  expenses 
as  well. 

The  following  is  an  average  description  of  what  happens  when  it  becomes  known 
that  a  school  building  is  contemplated.  Architect  Brown  writes  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
School  Board  and  explains  that  he  is  a  school  specialist,  having  had  more  experience  in 
the  planning  of  school  buildings  than  any  other  Architect  in  the  country  and  he  cites 
the  various  schools  he  has  planned,  some  perhaps  twenty-five  years  before,  but  they 
make  a  showing.  Mr.  Secretary  writes  back  that  they  are  not  quite  ready  to  select  an 
Architect  but  when  they  do  he  will  be  given  a  chance.  Maybe  a  dozen  such  letters  arrive 
as  the  trade  journals  announce  the  fact  that  a  school  is  to  be  built.  The  President  and 
various  members  of  the  board  receive  letters  and  among  them  books  of  plans  and  views 
of  buildings  or  proposed  buildings  and  as  letters  arrive  so  also,  Architect  Jones  drops 
in  to  introduce  himself,  quite  by  accident,  of  course,  he  was  just  going  through  that 
way  on  other  business,  and  he  gets  a  meeting  of  the  board,  ideas  of  their  needs, 
etc.,  and  he  promises  to  return  with  sketches  showing  what  he  can  do.  Next  day, 
also  quite  casually,  Smith  and  maybe  Brown  arrive  in  town  and  have  a  meeting 
with  the  School  Board,  they  too  promise  to  return  with  sketches  and  depart  after 
exhibiting  a  coat  pocket  full  of  recommendations  given  by  well  meaning  individuals 
who  perhaps  were  competent  to  judge  of  the  Architects  ability  and  perhaps  not,  anyway 
the  School  Board  are  well  disposed  toward  Smith,  or  Brown,  or  Jones,  and  they  are  invited 
back  with  sketches;  in  the  meantime  others  arrive  and  the  School  Boards  time  is  pretty 
much  occupied  with  such  a  variety  of  suggestions  as  to  the  proper  method  of  planning  a 
school  as  would  confuse  the  intelligence  of  almost  any  School  Board  unless  they  were 
already  experienced  in  the  creation  of  school  buildings.  In  consequence  a  beautifully 
colored  water  color  picture  with  attractive  sketches  combined  with  a  plausible  argument 
for  the  plan  and  an  attractive  estimate  of  cost  is  liable  to  influence  the  School  Board  in 


124 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

favor  of  the  particular  Architect  who  presents  the  most  plausible  proposition,  and  the 
one  selected  may  not  be  the  best  fitted  for  the  work,  and  the  School  Board  may  be  the 
losers  for  permitting  themselves  to  be  influenced  before  making  careful  investigation  of 
the  Architect's  work  before  employing  him.  The  old  adage,  "where  ignorance  is  bliss, 
t'is  folly  to  be  wise,"  ofttimes  is  called  to  mind  when  a  School  Board  visiting  new  buildings 
listens  to  the  laudatory  comment  of  the  owners  of  the  buildings  who  perhaps  have  built 
without  investigation  and  are  thoroughly  satisfied  with  what  they  have,  and  the  building 
they  are  so  well  pleased  with  may  be  the  poorest  excuse  for  a  school  the  visiting  School 
Board  has  seen  in  an  inspection  of  several  buildings,  and  the  writer  knows  of  one  instance 
where  a  School  Board  making  a  visit  of  this  kind  were  urged  by  the  Superintendent 
of  their  school  to  employ  their  Architect  as  his  work  was  thoroughly  satisfactory,  but 
the  visiting  School  Board  thought  otherwise  and  as  a  result  of  their  inspection  trip  they 
wrote  for  an  Architect  who  had  not  visited  them  or  offered  his  services  and  they  are  now 
the  possessors  of  a  school  building  which  is  a  real  credit  to  their  judgment  as  a  School 
Board  in  the  selection  of  a  man  about  whose  qualifications  they  had  assured  themselves 
before  selecting  him  for  their  work. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS  125 


T 


Chapter  Twenty-eight 

The  Duties  and  Functions  of  an  Architect 

HE  following  form  of  agreement  between  client  and  architect  has  proven  very 
satisfactory  and  the  writer  among  other  Architects  has  used  it  for  several  years  quite 
successfully : 


FORM  OF  AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  ARCHITECT  AND  OWNER 

1.  This  Agreement,  made  the day  of in  the  year  191 . . 

by  and  between    (herein- 
after designated  the  Architect)  and 

(hereinafter  designated  the  Owner). 

2.  Witnesseth:  That  the  Architect  and  the  Owner  for  the  considerations  here- 
inafter named,  agree  as  follows: 

3.  For  compensation  of  six  (6)  per  cent  upon  the  cost  of  the  work  contracted  for 
upon  the  Architect's  drawings  and  specifications,  the  Architect  agrees  to  furnish  pre- 
liminary sketches,  contract  working  drawings  and  specifications,  detail  drawings  and 
general  superintendence  of  building  operations,  and  also  to  audit  all  accounts  for  a 

school  building,  to  be  erected  for  the 

School  District  of County,  at 

4.  The  Architect's  complete  drawings  and  specifications  are  to  include  the  follow- 
ing: Complete  construction  of  building,  heating  and  ventilating  system,  lighting,  plumb- 
ing, seating,  complete  equipment,  decorating,  grading,  landscape  drawings,  yard  and 
sidewalks. 

5.  The  Architect  agrees  to  revise  all  preliminary  sketches  until  satisfactory  to  the 
Owner  and  to  make  such  revisions  in  the  completed  contract  plans  as  may  be  necessary 

to  bring  the  cost  within  the  sum  of Dollars,  unless 

a  larger  expenditure,  necessary  to  cover  the  cost  of  the  construction  as  first  planned,  shall 
be  authorized  by  the  Owner. 

Terms  of  payment  are  to  be  as  follows : 

6.  One  per  cent  of  the  estimated  cost  of  the  work  when  preliminary  drawings  are 
completed  (this  to  be  equalized  in  second  payment);  two  per  cent  of  the  contract  price 
when  the  contracts  are  let,  thereafter  at  the  rate  of  three  per  cent  upon  each  monthly 
certificate  due  to  the  contractors,  until  the  entire  six  per  cent  is  paid.  The  Architect's 
final  payment  to  be  due  when  the  contractor's  final  certificates,  accepting  the  work,  are 
issued,  and  is  based  upon  the  total  cost  of  the  work  including  all  extras. 

7.  If  the  work  upon  the  building,  is  postponed  or  abandoned,  the  Architect  is  to 
be  paid  for  the  actual  work  done,  in  the  office  or  at  the  building,  such  payments  to  be 
made  in  proportion  to  the  terms  of  payment  as  specified  above. 

8.  The  Architect  shall  have  general  supervision  and  direction  of  the  work  as  else- 
where mentioned.  He  is  not  the  agent  of  the  Owner  except  as  provided  in  the  contract 
documents  (between  Owner  and  Contractors)  and  when  in  special  instances  he  is  author- 
ized by  the  Owner  so  to  act,  and  in  such  instances  he  shall,  upon  request,  show  the  con- 
tractors written  authority.  He  has  authority  to  stop  the  work  whenever  such  stoppage 
may  be  necessary  to  insure  the  proper  execution  of  the  contract. 


126  t  PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


9.  The  Architect,  or  his  authorized  representative,  will  make  visits  to  the  building, 
for  the  purpose  of  general  supervision  of  such  frequency  and  duration  as,  in  the  Archi- 
tect's judgment,  will  suffice,  or  may  be  necessary  to  fully  instruct  contractors,  pass  upon 
the  merits  of  material  and  workmanship,  and  maintain  an  effective  working  organization 
of  the  several  contractors  engaged  upon  the  structure  and  in  addition  will  make  visits 
to  the  work  upon  special  call  of  the  Owner  (reasonable  notice  being  given). 

10.  The  Architect  will  provide  a  Superintendent  to  remain  constantly  upon  the 

work  until  the  building  is  completed  at  an  additional  expense  to  the  Owner  of  ( ) 

Dollars  per  month. 

11.  The  Architect  will  demand  of  the  contractors  proper  correction  and  remedy  of 
all  defects  discovered  in  their  work,  and  will  assist  the  Owner  in  enforcing  the  terms  of 
the  contracts;  but  the  Architect's  superintendence  shall  not  include  liability  or  respon- 
sibility for  any  breach  of  contract  by  the  contractors. 

12.  Drawings  and  specifications  are  instruments  of  service,  and  as  such  are  to  remain 
the  property  of  the  Architect.  One  set  of  the  plans,  details  and  specifications  are  to  be 
filed  permanently  with  the  School  Board. 

13.  The  said  parties  for  themselves,  their  heirs,  successors,  executors,  adminis- 
trators and  assigns,  do  hereby  agree  to  the  full  performance  of  the  covenants  herein 
contained. 

14.  In  Witness  Whereof,  the  parties  to  these  presents  have  hereunto  affixed 
their  signatures  on  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

In  presence  of 


Architect. 


By 

By 

NOTES  ON  AGREEMENT 

You  will  note  that  six  per  cent  is  mentioned  in  the  form  of  agreement.  This  is  the 
minimum  charge  as  recommended  by  the  American  Institute  of  Architects  and  is  a  fair 
remuneration  for  school  work  where  buildings  and  equipment  exceed  $25,000  in  cost, 
for  buildings  costing  less  than  that  amount,  the  charge  should  be  increased  correspond- 
ingly as  the  size  of  the  contract  decreases. 

In  Paragraph  4  of  agreement  you  will  note  that  the  Architect  is  to  include  all  equip- 
ment, this  includes  engineering  service  and  landscape  Architecture  among  other  items. 

There  is  a  tendency  for  heating  engineers  to  prefer  dealing  direct  with  the  owners, 
this  part  of  the  work  being  separated  from  the  Architectural  work.  Better  results,  how- 
ever, will  be  obtained  if  this  work  is  included  as  a  part  of  the  Architect's  work,  provided 
a  competent  heating  engineer  associated  with  him  in  the  work  and  in  any  event  the 
engineer  should  be  under  the  Architect's  direction  to  avoid  connection  in  drawings  which 
invariably  occur  where  each  works  independently  of  the  other. 

In  Paragraph  5  you  will  note  that  the  Architect  agrees  to  revise  all  plans  until  they 
may  be  erected  within  a  certain  stipulated  sum  agreed  upon.  This  while  it  is  not  a  guar- 
antee of  cost  in  a  meansure  protects  the  client  from  the  prevailing  custom  of  Architects 
to  very  much  underestimate  the  cost  of  their  buildings,  and  the  writer  has  never  found 
that  it  works  any  unnecessary  hardship  on  the  Architect  as  a  competent  Architect  will 
be  able  to  estimate  the  cost  of  his  work  within  a  reasonable  amount  and  it  certainly  is  a 
warning  to  the  Architect  who  wilfully  estimates  low  with  the  hope  of  securing  work  and  in 
a  measure  protects  the  conscientious  Architect  who  places  his  estimate  of  cost  where  it 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 127 

should  be.  The  conscientious  Architect  will  not  make  a  guaranteed  estimate  of  cost 
but,  ofttimes  is  compelled  to  make  an  estimate  by  the  client  who  is  determined  to  build 
within  certain  limits  and  where  this  is  done  he  should  not  agree  to  revise  plans  without 
remuneration  unless  the  changes  are  minor  ones  entailing  no  particular  expense  to  him. 

In  Paragraph  10  arrangement  is  made  for  a  superintendent  to  remain  constantly 
upon  the  work,  the  client  paying  his  salary  but  the  superintendent  to  be  provided  by  the 
Architect.  This  arrangement  secures  to  the  client  a  much  better  and  closer  supervision 
than  to  have  the  Architect's  occasional  visits  alone  to  rely  on.  Where  the  building  costs 
in  excess  of  $100,000.00  the  Architect  assumes  a  part  of  the  superintendents  expense 
and  on  buildings  costing  $200,000.00  or  more  he  assumes  all  of  the  expense  of  the  super- 
intendent's salary.  Some  Architects  demand  that  the  owners  pay  all  of  the  superin- 
tendent's salary  on  any  size  building,  but  school  work  is  somewhat  different  from  general 
work  and  the  above  arrangement  will  be  a  satisfactory  one  both  for  Architect  and  client, 
and  will  work  no  hardship  on  either. 

Some  Architects  propose  for  a  smaller  percentage  to  furnish  plans  and  specifications 
only.  However,  this  cannot  be  recommended  as  good  practice  either  for  the  Architect 
or  for  the  client.  The  management  of  building  operations  as  outlined  in  Chapter  30 
entails  a  special  knowledge  of  building  that  the  average  member  of  a  School  Board  lacks 
or  if  qualified  in  this  capacity,  the  average  member  of  a  School  Board  cannot  take  the 
necessary  time  from  his  own  business  to  properly  or  adequately  supervise  the  erection 
of  a  school  building  and  in  consequence  if  the  Architect  is  not  employed  for  this  purpose 
the  building  suffers  and  the  completed  structure  will  lack  in  finish  and  completeness  many 
times  the  Architect's  commission  for  supervision.  Contractors  take  advantage  of  the 
board  and  suggested  changes  are  often  accepted  to  the  detriment  of  the  building  and 
the  contractor's  profit.  For  instance  an  electrical  contractor  upon  a  school  building 
proposed  to  a  School  Board  that  he  install  one  large  400-watt  lamp  in  the  center  of  all 
their  class  rooms  in  place  of  4-100  watt  lamps  specified  in  four  outlets  equally  distributed, 
this  reducing  the  current  consumption  in  the  room  saving  money  on  electric  bills.  This 
appealed  to  the  School  Board  and  they  accepted  the  proposition,  the  contractor  agreeing 
to  make  no  additional  charge  for  the  change.  The  result  was  a  large  saving  to  the  con- 
tractor as  he  had  only  one-fourth  the  outlet  boxes  and  considerably  less  conduit  and 
wire  to  install.  The  result  was  a  further  loss  to  the  School  Board  as  one  brilliant  light 
in  the  center  of  a  class  room  of  the  size  proposed  would  not  furnish  adequate  light  uni- 
formly distributed  and  the  pupils  farthest  from  the  1  ght  suffered  in  consequence,  and 
those  nearest  the  light  were  annoyed  by  the  excess,  and  blackboard  space  was  not  so  well 
lighted.  Had  the  Architect  who  wrote  the  specification  been  consulted  and  his  advice 
taken,  the  School  Board  would  have  been  protected  and  this  change  would  not  have  been 
made.  Without  close  supervision,  contractors  are  prone  to  substitute  cheap  materials 
and  material  salesmen  often  influence  School  Boards  to  take  their  apparatus  when  a 
word  of  advice  from  the  Architects  experience  might  save  hundreds  of  dollars  and  perhaps 
thousands.  An  instance  of  this  occurred  on  a  small  school  where  there  was  3,500  square 
feet  of  steam  radiation  and  the  Architect  had  specified  one  large  cast  iron  boiler  for  the 
building  and  a  salesman  for  a  large  supply  house  pursuaded  the  School  Board  to  change  from 
one  to  two  boilers  of  the  same  capacity,  so  that  one  might  operate  while  the  other  was  being 
fixed  in  case  some  accident  should  occur  to  place  one  of  the  boilers  out  of  commission. 
A  plausible  argument  but  not  necessarily  a  good  one,  as  one  boiler  while  it  might  become 
damaged  to  the  extent  that  repairs  might  become  necessary,  yet  these  could  be  made 
during  vacation  or  at  the  weeks  end  when  two  days  intervene  between  school.  However 
the  board  was  influenced  to  the  extent  that  they  bought  both  boilers  and  this  required 
the  enlarging  of  the  boiler  room,  which  increased  the  cost  in  excess  of  $2,000.00,  and  the 
School  Board  omitted  all  finish  and  equipment  in  the  Gymnasium  to  pay  for  this  unnec- 
essary expense,  that  might  have  been  avoided  if  the  Architect  had  been  consulted  and  his 
advice  taken.  These  examples  may  seem  a  little  far  fetched  but  they  actually  occurred 
and  might  occur  again  and  they  merely  go  to  show  the  need  for  constant  supervision  of 
the  trained  Architect  to  continually  advise  and  assist  the  School  Board  in  the  erection  of 
their  building. 


128 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

The  Architect's  duty  is  to  prepare  all  preliminary  plans,  contract  working,  drawings 
and  specifications,  detail  drawings  and  general  superintendence  of  building  operations 
as  outlined  in  the  form  of  Argeement  herein  before  mentioned. 

The  Architect  should  also  assist  the  owner  in  awarding  the  contracts  and  as  the 
work  progresses  should  carefully  supervise  all  contracts,  audit  all  accounts,  inspect  all 
materials  and  workmanship.  He  should  in  every  way  possible  assist  the  owner  in  the 
enforcement  of  contracts  and  in  every  other  way  possible,  watch  and  protect  the  owners 
and  contractors  as  an  impartial  judge  seeing  to  it  that  no  injustice  be  worked  on  either. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS  129 


Chapter  Twenty-nine 

The  Bond  Issue 


WHEN  a  bond  issue  is  contemplated,  for  the  erection  of  a  new  school  building,  the 
first  consideration  of  the  School  Board  should  be  the  selection  of  a  careful,  con- 
scientious and  capable  Architect  to  advise  with  the  board,  prepare  tentative 
sketches,  assist  in  establishing  the  amount  to  be  expended  and  in  many  other  ways  lend 
his  assistance  and  advice  to  help  the  School  Board  to  avoid  the  mistake  of  appropriating 
too  little  for  the  building  and  equipment.  City  School  Boards  who  are  building  con- 
stantly have  a  school  Architect  employed  constantly  for  this  purpose  and  the  Board  who 
only  occasionally  build  can  make  good  use  of  the  Architect's  service  before  bonds  are 
voted. 

There  are  a  number  of  very  important  things  to  be  considered  in  the  preparation 
for  a  bond  issue  and  the  campaign  for  it. 

First:  A  careful  preparation  and  strict  adherence  to  the  law  is  necessary  as  any 
slight  deviation  from  the  prescribed  method  will  result  in  the  refusal  of  bonding  compa- 
nies to  buy  the  bonds.  In  fact,  it  is  advisable  that  some  reputable  bonding  company 
or  bond  attorney  be  called  in  and  paid  a  nominal  sum  to  prepare  all  proceeding  in  regular 
form,  in  order  that  no  mistake  be  made. 

This  relieves  the  Board  from  the  necessary  investigation  of  methods  to  be  employed 
and  enables  them  to  proceed  with  assurance  that  every  act  of  theirs  will  be  in  regular  form. 

Second:  A  careful  canvas  of  conditions  and  a  survey  of  the  school  situation  should 
be  made  by  an  expert  school  man  in  order  that  a  well  balanced  program  may  be  carried  out. 

Third:  An  educational  campaign  must  be  entered  into  to  educate  the  general 
public  to  the  need  of  the  school  or  schools.  This  many  times  is  the  most  essential  part 
of  the  program  as  many  people  are  indifferent  and  hard  to  persuade  that  additional  tax- 
ation is  necessary  for  school  purposes.  Retired  business  men  and  retired  farmers  are 
usually  a  menace  to  school  bonds  as  they  usually  are  heavy  tax  payers  and  have  no  direct 
interest  in  the  schools  as  their  own  children  are  beyond  the  school  age  and  their  lack  of 
interest  in  the  schools  keeps  them  from  realizing  the  need  for  improvement  as  they  are 
not  in  touch  with  the  schools  growth  and  they  are  prone  to  believe  that  existing  con- 
ditions are  good  enough,  and  they  must  be  awakened  to  the  real  conditions.  There  are 
some  who  cannot  be  convinced  no  matter  how  much  argument  is  brought  to  bear.  There 
are  some  who  are  progressive  and  need  no  convincing  and  there  is  still  another  element 
who  want  enlightenment  who  will  vote  as  their  judgment  is  convinced  and  these  last  are 
the  ones  who  can  be  reached  by  a  well  conducted  campaign.  They  must  be  convinced 
that  new  school  facilities  are  needed  and  when  convinced,  their  votes  can  always  be 
counted  on. 

The  opposition  to  a  bond  issue  invariably  have  increased  taxes  until  they  frighten 
the  average  citizen  into  voting  no,  to  much  needed  improvements  and  to  combat  this 
argument,  facts  should  be  presented  in  a  clear,  concise  and  logical  manner  by  circulars, 
and  through  the  medium  of  the  newspapers  and  by  mass  meetings  and  lectures  that  will 
stir  the  people  up  to  a  sense  of  their  duty,  and  be  assured  that  once  properly  stirred  up 
they  will  usually  prove  loyal  to  the  improvement.  However,  the. School  Board  must  be 
a  live  energetic  Board  and  whole  heartedly  behind  the  movement  or  the  people  will  not 
support  it.  There  is  nothing  so  discouraging  to  a  live  capable,  energetic  Superintendent 
of  schools,  as  an  indifferent  School  Board  and  if  the  Superintendent  tries  to  force  the  issue 
it  may  result  in  his  own  head  being  chopped  off,  but  if  the  School  Board  are  back  of  him 
boosting  for  the  schools,  the  majority  of  the  people  will  also  be  back  of  him  and  the  Board. 


130 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

Finally  :  Do  not  make  the  mistake  of  voting  an  inadequate  amount  to  be  expended 
as  you  will  only  regret  it  after  it  is  too  late.  Fully  three-fifths  of  all  bond  issues  have  been 
voted  for  an  amount  which  was  insufficient  and  the  school  and  its  equipment  suffered  in 
consequence  as  the  majority  of  School  Boards  do  not  feel  like  asking  for  additional  funds 
in  a  second  bond  issue,  in  consequence  the  building  is  trimmed  to  the  everlasting  detri- 
ment of  the  school. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS  131 


Chapter  Thirty 

Management  of  a  Building  Contract 


AFTER  the  selection  of  an  Architect,  and  the  arrangement  for  necessary  funds  to 
erect  your  school  building,  there  are  some  very  essential  problems  which  need 
L  careful  consideration  in  the  management  of  a  building  program. 

First,  the  advertising  for  bids.  After  all  details  of  plans  and  specifications  have  been 
gone  through  by  the  School  Board  and  every  detail  approved,  bids  must  be  advertised 
for  according  to  the  law  in  the  state  where  the  building  is  erected.  They  must  be  adver- 
tised for  publicly  by  calling  for  bids  in  the  nearest  local  newspaper  to  the  point  where  the 
school  building  is  to  be  erected.  This  varies  from  one  insertion  to  four  insertions  in  the 
local  paper,  weekly,  or  at  the  most,  twenty-eight  days.  The  school  board  and  the  archi- 
tect should  use  every  precaution  to  see  that  the  exact  terms  of  the  law  are  complied  with, 
as  the  opponents  to  the  building  program  may  take  advantage  of  technicalities,  to  file  an 
injunction  stopping  the  erection  of  a  building.  This  may  entail  quite  a  hardship  on  the 
district  and  should  be  avoided.  It  is  always  a  good  plan  to  consult  a  local  attorney  familiar 
with  the  law  in  the  state,  securing  his  assistance  to  see  that  no  mistake  is  made.  The 
school  board  is  often  limited  by  state  laws  in  the  awarding  of  contracts,  and  the  writer 
knows  of  several  instances  where  contracts  were  entered  into  illegally  with  the  architect, 
before  procedure  had  been  taken,  and  in  one  instance,  the  architect  lost  his  entire  com- 
pensation on  this  account.  He  had  been  employed  by  a  school  board,  a  written  contract 
entered  into,  and  as  both  the  board  and  the  architect  thought,  strictly  legal  in  every 
sense.  Action  was  taken  a  short  time  before  the  annual  school  meeting  in  the  state, 
and  an  opposition  to  the  proposed  building  became  very  bitter,  and  members  of  the 
opposition,  after  carefully  investigating  the  contract  and  the  terms  by  which  the  board 
could  legally  enter  into  contract  with  an  architect,  found  that  the  school  board  had  no 
authority  to  employ  an  architect  until  after  application  had  been  made  by  a  certain 
percentage  of  the  voters  for  a  new  building,  and  this  contract  had  been  entered  into  three 
days  before  such  a  petition  was  circulated.  This  argument  was  used  by  the  opposition 
to  throw  out  the  old  school  board  and  elect  a  new.  As  there  were  three  vacancies  to  be 
filled  at  the  annual  school  election,  three  new  school  board  members  were  appointed 
whose  votes  being  in  a  majority,  the  architect  was  thrown  out,  and  as  his  plans  were 
entirely  completed  at  this  time,  he  lost  his  entire  compensation,  as  the  three  new  members 
had  been  elected  with  the  sole  object  of  opposing  the  work  of  the  old  board,  and  the  two 
remaining  members  being  in  the  minority  could  do  nothing. 

After  advertisement  and  bids  have  been  taken,  special  precaution  should  be  used 
to  see  that  the  contracts  between  the  contractors  and  the  owners  are  equally  binding,  as 
the  improper  wording  of  an  advertisement,  or  the  re-estimating  or  re-figuring  of  any  part 
of  the  work,  after  bids  have  been  taken  may  void  the  contract  with  the  contractor,  and  if 
the  low  bidder  being  responsible  financially  and  reputable  as  a  contractor,  should  be  quite 
low  when  bids  are  opened,  he  may  wish  to  be  released  from  his  bid,  and  if  technicalities 
should  arise,  he  might  take  advantage  of  same,  and  the  district  lose  considerable  by  his 
failure  to  enter  into  the  contract.  The  writer  knows  of  several  instances  where  bids  have 
been  taken,  and  the  local  contractors  being  unsuccessful  in  securing  the  work,  have  used 
every  means  possible  to  throw  out  the  low  bidder,  and  secure  the  work  by  re-advertisement 
wherein  they  might  have  the  opportunity  of  refiguring,  and  several  instances  are  on  record 
where  they  have  gone  so  far  as  to  file  injunctions.  In  more  than  one  instance  they  have 
been  successful  in  their  endeavor  to  throw  out  bids.  Hence  the  necessity  of  having  a 
competent  attorney  to  co-operate  with  the  school  district  in  the  awarding  and  making 
of  contracts.  The  writer  knows  of  an  instance  where  bids  were  taken  and  the  low  bidders 
were  $12,000.00  lower  than  the  next  low  bidder.    The  contracting  company  making  the 


132 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

low  bid  were  thoroughly  reliable  and  financially  responsible,  yet  their  bid  was  some 
$15,000.00  more  than  the  school  district's  appropriation  of  $250,000.00,  and  the  school 
board  were  unwilling  to  spend  more  than  the  amount  of  their  bond  issue.  Consequently 
certain  revisions  were  necessary  and  they  wished  to  take  advantage  of  this  low  bid,  so 
unit  prices  having  been  furnished  by  the  contractor,  they  made  the  necessary  revisions, 
and  were  about  to  award  the  contract  at  the  lower  price  when  it  was  found  out  that 
injunction  proceedings  were  contemplated  by  the  opposition  to  the  school  building  pro- 
gram, whose  attorney  tried  to  throw  out  the  contract  on  the  basis  that  the  school  board 
were  not  awarding  the  contract  according  to  law,  claiming  that  the  school  board  were 
not  letting  the  contract  according  to  the  low  bid,  but  were  changing  the  low  bid,  and 
therefore  the  proceeding  was  illegal.  However,  as  no  definite  action  had  been  taken 
by  the  school  board,  they  immediately  awarded  the  contract  according  to  the  low  bid, 
signed  the  contract  at  the  original  bid,  and  immediately  made  deduction  orders  which 
complied  with  their  privilege  of  adding  to  or  deducting  from  the  face  of  the  contract.  If 
they  had  awarded  the  contract  and  signed  a  contract  at  the  lower  price,  it  would  have 
been  illegal  and  could  have  been  thrown  out,  but  as  they  signed  the  contract  at  the  original 
bid,  then  there  was  no  objection  to  their  making  changes  from  the  original  contract, 
which  had  been  provided  for  in  the  contract  document,  general  conditions,  and  specifi- 
cations. Merely  a  technicality,  yet  one  which  might  have  resulted  in  a  serious  loss  to  the 
district  if  the  school  board  and  their  attorney  had  not  found  their  error  before  signing 
the  contract.  These  things  do  not  happen  often,  yet  the  very  fact  that  they  do  happen 
once  in  a  while,  should  be  a  precaution  to  the  school  boards  and  architects  and  for  this 
reason  special  precaution  should  be  taken  to  overcome  any  possibility  of  error.  The 
small  expenditure  necessary  to  secure  the  services  of  a  capable  attorney  may  be  the 
means  of  saving  several  thousand  dollars  to  the  school  district. 

The  following  form  for  advertisement  for  bids  has  proven  to  be  quite  satisfactory, 
as  it  is  clear,  concise,  gives  the  bidder  every  information  necessary,  tells  him  how  to  secure 
drawings,  what  is  required  in  the  way  of  bond,  or  certified  check,  date  and  hour  upon 
which  bids  are  to  be  received,  and  the  correct  name  and  address  of  the  school  district,  and 
to  whom  check  and  bid  is  to  be  made  payable. 

NOTICE  TO  BIDDERS 

Bids  on  June  29,  1917,  at  7:30  P.  M. 

Article  1.  Bids  are  desired  on  a  high  and  grade  school  building  to  be  erected  at 
Traer,  Iowa,  by  the  board  of  directors  of  the  Independent  School  District  of  Traer,  in 
the  county  of  Tama,  Iowa.  Bids  are  to  be  delivered  to  the  secretary,  T.  F.  Stoakes, 
at  his  office,  Traer,  Iowa,  and  will  be  received  until  7:30  P.  M.,  June  29,  1917,  and  will 
be  opened  immediately  and  read  publicly.  Bids  are  to  be  accompanied  by  bidders' 
bonds,  or  certified  checks,  in  amounts  as  follows : 

General  Construction  Bond $3,000.00 

Roofing  and  Sheet  Metal  Bond 600.00 

Heating  and  Ventilating  Bond 800.00 

Plumbing  Bond 500.00 

Electrical  Work  Bond 300.00 

No  bonds  required  on  equipment. 

Article  2.  The  bidders  bonds  must  be  made  out  payable  unconditionally  to 
the  treasurer  of  the  school  district,  K.  P.  Moore,  as  a  guarantee  that  the  bidder,  if  suc- 
cessful, will  enter  into  contract  with  the  said  district  and  furnish  a  bond  in  the  form  out- 
lined in  the  specifications,  guaranteeing  the  completion  of  the  building.  The  bonding 
company  furnishing  the  bidders  bond  must  state  in  bid  bond  that  they  will  furnish  the 
contract  bond  at  once  if  the  bidder  is  awarded  the  work. 

Article  3.  Certified  checks  in  the  above  amounts  will  be  accepted  if  accompanied 
by  full  contract  bond  in  the  amount  of  the  contractor's  bid  No.  one. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS  133 


Article  4.  Plans  will  be  on  file  at  the  office  of  the  secretary  at  Traer,  Iowa,  and 
at  the  office  of  the  architect,  John  Doe,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota;  also  at  the  Builders'  Ex- 
changes of  Chicago,  Illinois,  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  and  Des  Moines,  Iowa 
on  and  after  June  12,  1917. 

Article  5.  Plans  may  be  secured  by  contractors  who  wish  to  bid  upon  application 
to  the  office  of  the  architect  or  upon  application  to  the  secretary  without  charge  on  all 
applications  mailed  before  June  12th,  on  all  applications  mailed  after  that  date  should 
be  accompanied  by  $5.00  to  pay  for  the  cost  of  making  prints.  Any  material  company 
desiring  plans  will  be  charged  the  exact  cost  of  blue-printing  plans  they  receive.  All 
bids  must  be  plainly  marked  on  outside  of  envelopes  indicating  the  kind  of  construction 
they  represent  and  should  be  registered  if  mailed  to  the  secretary. 

Article  6.  A  space  for  the  bidders'  signature  is  left  on  each  sheet  of  the  plans  and 
specifications  and  the  bidder  must  identify  same  by  his  full  name  or  initials  and  must 
return  plans  and  specifications  with  his  bid. 

Article  7.  The  above  advertisement  for  bids  clearly  states  the  terms  upon  which 
bids  will  be  received.  Contractors  who  fail  to  comply  with  the  above  or  fail  to  bid  ac- 
cording to  the  plans  and  specifications,  or  fail  to  bid  upon  the  form  of  bid  provided  will 
receive  no  consideration  and  their  bids  will  not  be  considered.  The  right  is  reserved 
to  reject  any  or  all  bids. 

(Signed)     Independent  School  District  of 
Traer,  Iowa,  in  the  County  of 
Tama,  State  of  Iowa. 

By  T.  F.  Stoakes,  Secretary. 

Special  attention  is  called  in  the  above  advertisement,  in  Article  1,  which  states' 
specifically  the  hour  and  minute  when  bids  will  be  received.  Note  is  also  made  that  bids 
will  be  opened  immediately  and  read  publicly.  If  this  practice  is  followed,  contractors 
will  undoubtedly  be  better  satisfied  and  secure  more  honest  and  fair  treatment,  as  the 
old  method  of  opening  bids  privately,  while  it  permits  the  school  board  to  award  the 
contract  to  any  contractor  they  see  fit,  yet  it  is  unsatisfactory  as  it  permits  of  considerable 
lobbying  but  does  not  give  the  contractor  the  fair  opportunity  for  open  and  honest  bidding. 
Better  far  that  the  contractors  be  investigated  carefully,  and  their  record  made  known 
and  that  they  be  rejected  openly  rather  than  privately.  An  honest  and  open  rejection 
never  creates  the  amount  of  ill  feeling  or  suspicion,  as  the  secret  bidding  process  where 
the  contractors  do  not  know  exactly  what  the  bids  of  their  competitors  are  and  they  do 
not  know  whether  they  are  receiving  just  consideration  or  not.  Many  times  where  bids 
are  opened  privately,  some  high  bidder  will  be  awarded  the  work  upon  his  agreement 
to  accept  the  work  at  the  low  bidder's  price. 

You  will  also  notice  in  Article  1  of  advertisement,  that  the  entire  contract  is  divided 
into  a  general  contract,  which  covers  the  entire  construction  of  the  building,  with  the 
exception  of  roofing  and  sheet  metal  work.  The  roofing  and  sheet  metal  work  is  put  in 
one  contract.  Heretofore  there  has  been  a  portion  of  the  sheet  metal  work  in  connection 
with  the  heating  contract  and  a  portion  of  the  metal  work  in  connection  with  the  general 
contract.  By  combining  these  two,  a  larger  part  of  sheet  metal  work  is  put  together  and 
there  is  no  confliction  between  the  metal  work  done  by  the  heating  contractor  and  the  metal 
work  done  by  the  general  contractor.  The  heating  work  is  in  one  contract  and  the  plumb- 
ing in  another.  The  heating  or  plumbing  contractor  being  permitted  to  combine  the  two 
if  he  sees  fit,  as  many  heating  contractors  do  plumbing,  or  vice  versa.  The  electrical 
work  is  placed  separate,  and  the  amount  of  certified  checks  or  bidders  bonds  are  estimated 
from  five  to  ten  per  cent  of  the  face  of  the  contract,  but  are  stipulated  in  exact  amount  so 
that  all  bidders  will  have  the  exact  amount  of  their  check  or  bond,  rather  than  to  have 
a  percentage  of  their  bid  which  would  make  practically  every  check  a  different  amount. 
In  this  way,  the  contractor  can  have  his  certified  check  or  bid  bond  prepared  several 
days  in  advance.  If  he  waits  to  total  up  his  bid  in  order  to  have  a  check  equal  to  a  certain 
percentage  of  his  bid,  it  may  mean  a  delay  at  the  time  when  bids  go  in.    Hence  the  method 


134  PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


of  establishing  the  exact  amount  of  bid  bond  or  check.  No  bonds  are  required  on  equip- 
ment or  seating,  as  these  are  usually  small  amounts  and  can  be  bought  in  the  open  market 
from  reliable  concerns,  but  if  in  the  opinion  of  the  school  board,  a  check  is  desired  this 
can  be  arranged  for  easily. 

Note  in  Article  2  that  where  a  bid  bond  is  furnished,  the  bonding  company  must 
state  in  their  bid  bond  that  they  will  furnish  contract  bonds  at  once  if  the.  bidder  is 
awarded  the  work.  This  requirement  is  made  in  order  to  eliminate  the  bidder  who  might 
possibly  be  able  to  secure  a  bid  bond  but  who  might  not  be  able  to  secure  a  contract 
bond,  if  he  was  extremely  low.  Bonding  companies  are  often  quite  anxious  for  business 
and  would  run  the  risk  of  furnishing  a  bid  bond,  who  might  refuse  the  contract  bond. 
If,  however,  the  bid  bond  states  that  the  bonding  company  will  furnish  the  contract 
bond  if  the  bidder  is  successful,  this  eliminates  all  questions  and  assures  the  school  dis- 
trict that  the  low  bidder  will  be  able  to  furnish  bond.  Those  contractors  who  are  unable 
to  furnish  a  bid  bond  of  this  nature  are  better  off  not  to  figure,  and  the  school  district 
are  better  off  by  knowing  in  advance  who  will  be  able  to  complete  their  contract  and 
furnish  bond  if  awarded  the  work.  The  writer  has  known  of  instances  where  the  low 
bidder  furnishing  a  certified  check  has  been  unable  afterward  to  secure  a  bond.  Usually 
this  delays  the  awarding  of  the  contract  and  works  a  hardship  on  the  school  district, 
as  they  would  be  required  to  re-advertise  and  the  delay  might  cause  a  serious  loss  to  them. 

You  will  note  under  Article  3  that  if  the  contractor  furnishes  certified  checks  in 
the  above  amount,  they  must  be  accompanied  by  a  full  contract  bond  in  the  amount 
of  the  contractors  bid  number  one.  This  is  done  with  the  same  object  in  view,  that  the 
bidder  will  show  his  ability  to  furnish  bond  when  submitting  his  bid.  If  this  practice  is 
followed  out,  irresponsible  bidding  will  be  practically  eliminated,  and  the  irresponsible 
bidder  has  been  one  of  the  great  difficulties  architects  and  owners  have  had  to  contend  with. 
The  law  in  the  majority  of  states  requires  the  school  district  to  award  a  contract  to  the 
lowest  responsible  bidder.  By  this  means  the  responsibility  of  the  bidder  is  established 
to  a  great  extent,  and  the  school  board  is  not  called  upon  to  discriminate  among  several 
low  bidders  as  they  might  under  the  old  system  of  bidding. 

Note  in  Article  4  that  the  place  where  plans  can  be  seen  are  specifically  mentioned, 
also  the  date  upon  which  plans  will  be  placed  on  file.  This  enables  general  contractors 
to  request  sub-bids  from  material  concerns  in  the  various  parts  of  the  country.  These 
sub-contractors  can  then  apply  at  the  different  builders'  exchanges  or  elsewhere  and 
secure  drawings  upon  which  to  figure  the  work. 

You  will  note  in  Article  5  that  practically  no  limit  is  placed  on  the  contractors  esti- 
mating and  that  no  charge  will  be  made  for  drawings  on  plans  applied  for  up  to  a  certain 
date.  This  encourages  prompt  application  for  drawings,  and  when  drawings  are  applied 
for  promptly,  contractors  will  usually  have  ample  time  to  figure,  and  it  prohibits  those 
who  wish  to  call  for  drawings  at  the  last  minute  unless  they  wish  to  pay  for  the  privilege 
of  figuring,  and  then  only  the  cost-  of  making  prints.  Material  concerns  are  charged 
for  blueprints,  otherwise  there  would  be  an  enormous  expense  entailed  in  the  making 
of  plans  for  all  material  concerns  who  might  wish  to  submit  figures,  and  by  placing  draw- 
ings in  the  builders'  exchanges  of  various  cities,  adjacent  to  the  town  wherein  the  building 
is  to  be  erected  will  obviate  a  great  deal  of  this  trouble,  and  will  require  building  companies 
and  material  concerns  to  go  there  to  figure  the  plans.  Special  precaution  should  be  taken 
to  see  that  all  bids  be  plainly  marked  on  the  outside  of  the  envelope,  indicating  the  kind 
of  construction  they  represent,  as  many  bids  have  been  mailed  in  to  the  secretary  in  an 
envelope  and  addressed  as  any  letter  would  be  addressed.  In  consequence  the  secretary 
opens  the  bid  thinking  it  is  a  letter,  and  exposes  the  bid  to  the  contractor's  possible  detri- 
ment. This  at  least  opens  the  bid  up  to  observation  and  the  contractor  himself  is  best 
protected  if  his  bid  is  plainly  marked  for  the  purpose  it  is  intended,  and  there  will  be 
no  danger  of  criticism  by  the  bids  being  opened  from  this  cause  if  plainly  marked. 

Articles  6  and  7  should  be  specifically  called  to  the  attention  of  bidders  by  the  architect 
or  school  board,  as  this  will  be  a  protection  to  both  and  will  work  no  hardship  upon  either. 
Where  the  bidder  initials  or  identifies  the  plans  and  specifications  from  which  he  has 
figured,  he  can  not  then  come  in  afterward  and  claim  that  any  substitution  of  plans  and 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 135 

specifications  has  been  made.  He  is  also  protected  by  this  means  from  the  specification 
or  plans  being  changed  or  elaborated  upon.  After  the  contract  is  signed,  the  owners 
and  contractors  should  identify  at  least  three  sets  of  the  plans  and  specifications,  one  for 
the  contractor's  private  file,  one  for  the  owners'  private  file,  to  be  placed  on  record,  also 
one  for  the  architect  so  that  at  all  times  a  correct  record  of  plans  and  specifications  can 
be  had.  The  writer  has  a  case  on  record  where  only  one  word  had  been  changed  in  the 
specifications,  and  because  of  identification  the  school  board  was  saved  a  considerable 
item.  This  change  had  been  made  in  the  signed  record  copy  and  filed  away  in  a  bank 
vault  by  the  secretary  of  the  school  district.  Several  of  the  other  copies  of  specifications 
used  on  the  contract  had  not  been  changed  as  had  their  record  copy,  through  an  oversight, 
and  a  cheaper  article  was  substituted  by  the  contractor  on  this  account,  he  claiming 
that  his  record  copy  did  not  show  this  change.  The  cheaper  article  was  ordered  out  by 
the  architect,  and  the  specified  article  was  demanded  and  refused  by  the  contractor. 
After  due  notice  by  law,  as  called  for  in  the  contract,  this  specified  article  was  bought 
by  the  board  and  deducted  from  the  amount  of  the  contractor's  payment  against  his 
protest.  The  school  board  and  architect,  however,  demanded  that  the  contractor  bring . 
forth  his  signed  record  copy,  agreeing  that  if  his  record  copy  did  not  show  the  same  change 
as  their  copy,  then  they  would  concede  his  point  and  pay  him  the  difference  between 
the  better  article  specified  and  the  cheaper  article  he  had  substituted.  The  contractor, 
however,  refused  to  produce  his  record  copy,  and  an  examination  of  it  afterwards  was 
made  by  the  architect  after  the  contract  was  entirely  completed  and  adjusted  and  the 
drawings  returned  to  the  office,  and  it  was  found  that  his  record  copy  was  identically 
the  same  as  the  board's  record  copy  and  the  cheaper  article  had  been  marked  out  there. 
This  clearly  shows  the  advantage  of  signing  drawings  and  specifications  for  the  purpose 
of  identification,  and  the  school  board  and  architect  should  insist  upon  this  procedure, 
although  it  takes  some  little  time,  and  may  be  construed  as  unnecessary  red  tape,  but 
too  much  precaution  cna  not  be  taken  to  safeguard  the  interests  of  all  parties  concerned, 
and  while  in  this  instance  the  owners  were  safeguarded,  it  might  have  been  in  another 
instance  that  the  contractor  would  be  protected. 

Article  7  cautions  the  contractor  to  follow  the  terms  of  the  bid  bond  or  certified  check, 
dates  of  bidding,  hour  and  minute  upon  which  bids  are  to  be  received,  and  also  warns 
the  bidder  that  any  bid  received  which  is  not  upon  the  correct  form  and  upon  the  terms 
of  the  bid  advertisement,  will  be  rejected  or  not  considered.  School  boards  and  architects 
should  adhere  rigidly  to  the  terms  of  their  bid  form  and  the  advertisement  in  order  to 
avoid  trouble.  Bids  should  be  thrown  out  and  rejected  if  not  put  in  properly  or  according 
to  the  terms  of  the  advertisement.  When  all  contractors  live  up  strictly  to  the  terms  of 
the  advertisement,  and  fill  out  their  bids  in  exactly  the  same  form,  there  can  be  no  question 
of  the  legality  of  the  bid,  and  no  trouble  will  result  from  the  award.  Some  states  permit 
of  the  extending  of  the  time  for  advertisement  for  bids,  and  others  specifically  forbid 
extending  the  time  without  re-advertising  for  the  full  length  of  time  required  by  law. 
The  school  district  and  the  architect  should  carefully  investigate  their  rights  and  should 
stay  well  within  them. 

Second.    AWARDING  THE  CONTRACT,  SELECTION  OF  CONTRACTORS. 

Many  a  school  board  and  architect  have  regretted  the  awarding  of  a  contract  to  a  low 
bidder,  whose  bid  may  be  so  low  that  materials  and  labor  can  not  be  secured  within  the 
amount  of  the  bid.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  tell  when  a  bidder  should  or  should  not 
be  awarded  the  contract.  A  school  board  usually  receives  what  they  pay  for  if  they 
select  a  low  bidder  whose  responsibility  is  in  question  and  he  finds  himself  about  to  lose 
money  by  the  transaction  he  most  certainly  would  use  every  effort  to  save  himself  from 
loss,  and  in  doing  so,  the  school  board  will  most  certainly  lose  the  difference  between  the 
low  bid  and  some  other  bid  where  the  contractor  gets  a  reasonable  margin  of  profit.  Con- 
sequently a  careful  selection  of  the  bids  should  be  made,  weighing  the  probabilities  of  the 
contractor  being  able  to  complete  his  work,  and  be  able  to  do  so  without  loss.  The  writer 
has  often  noticed  several  reliable  contractors  whose  bids  would  vary  but  little,  possibly 
three  to  five  thousand  dollars  on  seventy  to  seventy-five  thousand  dollar  contracts,  and 


136 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

then  some  one  or  two  bidders  would  drop  away  below  the  average  of  all  other  bidders. 
In  one  instance  $9,000.00  was  the  low  bidder  under  the  next  low  bid,  and  six  other  bidders 
were  within  one  to  three  thousand  dollars  of  the  second  low  bidder.  As  competition 
had  been  quite  keen  and  work  rather  scarce  at  the  time,  it  was  presumed  that  this  bidder 
had  put  in  a  bid  below  actual  cost,  and  this  contractor,  while  he  was  financially  responsible, 
and  able  to  complete  the  contract,  had  the  undesirable  reputation  of  doing  inferior  work ; 
but  the  school  board  in  this  instance  felt  they  could  not  afford  to  lose  the  difference  between 
the  bids,  consequently  they  contracted  with  this  low  bidder  and  their  building  was  erected 
with  considerable  difficulty  as  the  contractor  fought  every  technicality  in  the  plans  and 
specifications  and  used  every  effort  to  protect  himself,  and  if  it  had  not  been  for  the 
close  and  careful  supervision  of  the  architect's  superintendent  constantly  upon  the  work, 
the  school  board  would  certainly  have  been  very  much  the  losers.  As  it  was,  a  fairly 
good  building  resulted,  but  the  contractor  lost  in  the  neighborhood  of  $4,000.00  and  the 
writer  does  not  believe  that  any  school  district  or  any  individual  is  entitled  to  have  any- 
thing given  to  them  in  this  way,  nor  that  any  school  district  wants  to  see  a  contractor 
lose  money  in  this  way.  The  usual  result  is  the  bankruptcy  of  the  contractor  and  if  the 
contractor  is  in  a  shakey  condition,  or  his  finances  are  not  sufficiently  good,  his  bid  should 
be  thrown  out,  and  a  responsible  bid  accepted.  If  this  is  always  done,  there  will  be 
no  trouble  in  the  erecting  of  buildings  or  the  completion  of  contracts.  If  the  contractor 
is  unable  to  complete  his  work,  it  results  in  the  bonding  company  being  forced  to  com- 
plete it,  or  the  owners  will  be  compelled  to  complete  the  work  themselves  and  then  have 
recourse  to  law  to  force  the  bonding  company  to  comply  with  their  bond  or  contract. 
This  usually  results  in  additional  expense  any  way  the  problem  is  handled  and  the  extra 
expense  will  usually  amount  to  as  much  or  more  than  the  difference  between  the  low 
bidder  and  the  next  responsible  bidder.  As  a  means  of  ascertaining  the  reliability  and 
the  responsibility  of  the  contractor,  the  following  form  of  information  sheet  is  filled  out 
fully  by  the  contractor,  and  replies  received  from  all  the  references  given  will  enable  the 
architect  or  school  board  to  judge  the  contractors  ability  or  financial  responsibility, 
provided  a  request  for  information  is  tactfully  worded.  The  contractor  of  course,  will 
give  the  reference  he  considers  the  most  satisfactory  to  himself,  and  in  requesting  infor- 
mation, the  architect  or  school  board  by  properly  wording  their  request  for  information 
can  find  out  many  things  that  will  be  of  assistance.  For  instance,  by  requesting  the 
bonding  company  to  know  if  the  contractor  was  able  to  furnish  his  own  indemnity,  or 
if  some  large  material  concern  indemnifies  the  contractor  to  secure  the  bond,  will  some- 
times bring  forth  interesting  replies,  as  many  contractors  are  unable  to  personally  furnish 
the  bonding  companies  with  sufficient  assurances  of  their  ability  and  quite  often  large 
material  companies  will  indemnify  the  contractor  to  assist  him  in  the  securing  of  the 
necessary  bond,  thereby  obligating  the  contractor  to  themselves  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  material  company  will  be  able  to  supply  the  contract  with  materials,  leaving  the 
contractor  no  choice  as  to  the  selection  and  no  freedom  of  action.  Banks  will  invariably 
give  conscientious  and  reliable  information  with  reference  to  their  clients'  standing  and 
reliability.  When  requesting  information  from  material  companies,  it  is  well  to  ask  if 
they  know  of  any  other  material  concerns  with  whom  the  contractor  is  doing  business. 
This  will  usually  bring  a  much  larger  list  of  material  concerns  and  will  bring  to  light 
any  unpleasant  business  dealings  which  the  contractor  may  have  had,  and  will  throw 
additional  light  on  his  business  that  may  prove  of  considerable  value  in  judging  the 
merits  of  the  contractor.  Request  for  information  from  the  architect  and  owner  on 
work  which  this  particular  contractor  or  contractors  have  handled  will  usually  supply 
the  information  as  to  the  success  with  which  the  contractor  handles  his  work.  You 
will  note  that  the  first  question  and  second  question  refer  to  the  correct  name  and  address 
of  the  contractor,  and  to  the  worth  of  his  company  at  the  date  of  his  last  invoice.  It  is 
sometimes  amusing  to  see  the  replies  to  this  second  question.  For  instance,  one  con- 
tractor stated  the  worth  of  his  company  at  the  date  of  his  last  invoice,  $50,000.00.  His 
bank  stated  that  a  conservative  estimate  of  his  worth  would  be  $5,000.00.  Another 
contractor  stated  at  the  date  of  his  last  invoice,  his  company  estimated  at  $83,467.27.  A 
reply  from  his  bank  brought  forth  the  assurance  that  he  was  well  worth  over  $100,000.00. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS  137 

Usually  where  a  contractor  states  in  round  numbers  the  worth  of  his  company,  you  can 
depend  upon  it,  this  worth  represents  his  own  estimate  of  value  and  is  usually  inflated. 

CONFIDENTIAL  INFORMATION  SHEET 

Before  awarding  a  contract,  we  require  certain  reference  from  contractors.  In 
order  that  we  may  not  be  required  to  postpone  the  awarding  of  our  work,  we  ask  con- 
tractors to  supply  the  following  information  for  our  files  which  we  agree  to  hold  strictly 
confidential : 

1.  Correct  title  and  address  of  your  firm 

2.  Your  estimated  worth  from  last  invoice 

3.  Name  of  bank  or  banks,  and  address,  with  whom  you  do  business 

4.  Name  of  building  company  or  companies  and  address  who  have  carried  your 
last  five  contract  bonds 


5.     Give  a  list  of  ten  material  companies,  with  their  addresses,  with  whom  you  are 
doing  business. 


*•* 


6.     Give  list  of  the  five  largest  buildings  you  have  built  during  the  past  five  years 
and  owner's  name. 


7.     Give  a  list  of  buildings  (and  their  cost)  that  you  are  erecting  at  the  present  time. 
Give  owner's  name. 


8.     Give  a  list  of  five  architects  and  their  addresses,  you  have  done  work  under. 


9.     How  are  you  supplied  with  equipment  to  handle  work  of  this  nature? 


138  PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Contractors  who  have  not  been  in  business  long  enough  to  answer  above  fully,  should 
answer  as  completely  as  possible. 

Reply  to  tbe  above  should  be  mailed  back  immediately,  in  order  to  give. us  time 
to  do  any  investigating  we  consider  necessary,  as  NO  BID  WILL  BE  ACCEPTED 
FROM  ANY  CONTRACTOR  WHO  REFUSES  OR  NEGLECTS  TO  SUPPLY  THE 
ABOVE  INFORMATION. 

Sincerely  yours, 

John  Doe,  Architect. 

Third.     SUPERVISION  OF  THE  WORK. 

Perhaps  of  all  the  various  important  parts  of  a  building  program,  that  of  the  super- 
vision of  the  construction  under  way  is  the  most  important.  No  matter  how  thoroughly 
a  set  of  drawings  and  specifications  may  be  prepared,  unless  they  are  carried  out  to  com- 
pletion with  proper  materials  and  efficient  workmanship  the  best  building  material  in  the 
world  can  be  spoiled  and  a  thoroughly  unsatisfactory  building  may  result.  No  building 
of  any  consequence  should  be  erected  without  the  constant  supervision  of  a  clerk  of  the 
works  who  can  see  that  all  parts  of  the  work  is  being  carried  out  according  to  the  true 
intent  of  the  plans  and  specifications.  He  should  watch  all  parts  of  the  construction, 
see  to  it  that  all  materials  have  been  tested  and  approved,  and  at  all  times  keep  the 
architect  posted  as  to  the  progress  of  the  building,  and  insist  in  the  maintaining  of  a 
thorough  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  contractors,  for  the  various  portions  of  the 
work.  When  plans  and  specifications  are  completed,  and  the  work  is  under  way,  the 
architect  is  placed  in  the  position  of  a  judge  on  the  bench,  his  duty  being  to  see  that 
all  parties  to  the  contract  secure  their  rights.  He  must  see  that  materials  and  work- 
manship are  up  to  the  standard  specified.  He  must  also  see  to  it  that  all  parts  of  the 
work  are  carried  on  in  harmony,  and  he  is  to  act  as  a  mediator  between  client  and  con- 
tractor, and  his  decision  as  to  the  true  intent  of  the  plans,  details,  and  specifications 
are  binding  on  all  parties  concerned,  with  the  exception  that  either  party  to  the  con- 
tract may  dissent  from  his  decision  and  resort  to  arbitration,  if  they  are  not  satisfied 
with  the  justice  of  his  decision.  In  consequence,  the  architect  is  many  times  placed 
in  a  rather  difficult  position,  and  it  should  be  the  aim  of  the  superintendent  or  clerk  of 
the  work,  to  so  manage  his  portion  of  the  supervision  of  the  work  under  way,  as  to  avoid 
all  disputes  and  difficulty  between  the  contractor  and  the  client,  which  in  the  case  of 
school  boards  represents  four  or  five  and  sometimes  more  members,  all  having  individual 
and  quite  often,  different  opinions.  To  so  handle  work  that  all  parties  may  be  pleased 
and  satisfied  with  results,  requires  considerable  tact  on  the  part  of  the  architect's  super- 
intendent, and  also  a  good  deal  of  fineness  and  strength  of  character  to  protect  the  interests 
of  all  parties  without  partiality  to  either'.  During  the  progress  of  the  building  contract, 
many  times  the  architect  who  is  conscientious,  may  be  criticised  by  the  school  board 
for  favoring  the  contractor,  and  again  criticised  by  the  contractor  for  favoring  the  owners. 
Such  a  result  is  inevitable  unless  the  school  board  takes  a  broad  minded  view  of  the 
architect's  duties  and  liabilities,  and  they  can  only  take  such  a  view  after  having  care- 
fully investigated  the  architect's  reputation  and  integrity.  If  the  architect  has  been 
selected  on  any  other  grounds  than  his  known  ability,  reliability  and  reputation  for 
strict  honesty,  trouble  may  arise  through  the  school  boards  questioning  his  decisions 
unless  the  contractor  is  willing  to  do  almost  anything  he  is  requested  to  do,  to  cover 
up  defects,  omissions  and  ambiguities  which  will  sometimes  appear  in  drawings.  If 
the  contractor  stands  up  for  his  rights,  in  such  a  case,  and  the  architect  agrees  with  him, 
it  is  very  difficult  to  persuade  a  school  board  that  the  architect  is  not  favoring  the  con- 
tractor, rather  than  allowing  him  exact  justice.  And  it  takes  an  architect  with  con- 
siderable backbone  to  stand  the  criticism  of  his  clients  and  maintain  the  contractor's 
rights.  Again  if  the  architect  upholds  the  cause  of  his  client  the  contractor  will  cry  favor- 
itism, and  in  many  instances  will  wilfully  cause  trouble  and  annoyance  for  the  architect. 
Hence  the  need  of  a  well  organized  architect's  office  with  competent  supervision  on  his 
part  and  on  the  part  of  the  clerk  of  the  works.  Many  school  boards  do  not  realize  or 
appreciate  the  great  value  of  the  architect's  supervision.    In  fact,  many  ill-advised  school 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 139 

boards  have  preferred  to  handle  their  own  supervision,  buy  plans  and  specifications 
and  after  plans  were  secured,  having  no  further  dealings  with  the  architect.     Many  of 
these  school  boards  do  this  with  the  whole  idea  that  the  architect  is  a  grafter,  obtaining 
commissions  from  all  different  material  concerns  whose  wares  are  specified,  or  mentioned 
on  the  plans  or  specifications,  having  very  serious  suspicions  of  his  honesty  and  integrity, 
and  by  this  means  seeking  to  avoid  any  opportunity  on  the  part  of  the  architect  to  be  in 
collusion  with  these  material  men  or  contractors ;  the  school  board  honestly  believing  and 
expecting  to  get  a  much  better  building  if  the  architect  is  eliminated  after  plans  and 
specifications  are  completed.    It  is  to  be  regretted  that  such  a  fallacy  should  be  found 
in  the  minds  of  so  many  people.     It  is  due  largely  to  the  few  unprincipled  men  in  the 
architectural  profession  who  would  stop  at  nothing  to  gain  their  own  end,  and  whose 
reputations  are  so  bad  that  a  little  investigation  would  persuade  any  school  board  to 
have  nothing  to  do  with  them  under  any  consideration.     However,  a  large  majority 
of  architects  are  strictly  honest  and  conscientious  and  are  deserving  of  every  confidence 
that  may  be  placed  in  them  by  the  school  board  or  client.    And  the  conscientious  archi- 
tect can  always  be  of  invaluable  assistance  in  the  supervision  of  a  contract,  and  I  would 
urge  that  no  building  contract  be  entered  into  that  did  not  contemplate  the  continual 
close  supervision  by  the  architect's  office  and  its  representatives.    The  difficulty  of  com- 
pleting a  building  of  any  consequence  without  continual  architectural  supervision  through 
some  representative  of  the  architect's  office  remaining  constantly  upon  the  work,  together 
with  trips  of  supervision  by  the  architect  himself,  or  his  special  representative,  has  caused 
many  architects  to  refuse  to  make  plans  or  specifications  without  this  continual  super- 
vision, in  order  that  their  own  reputation  as  architect  may  be  protected,  owing  to  the 
inefficiency  of  the  average  constructing  organization  to  complete  a  building  successfully 
without  this  supervision.    Where  the  architect  does  not  supervise  the  work,  contractors 
take  advantage  of  the  owners  quite  often  and  the  architect  is  many  times  unjustly  blamed 
for  troubles  which  are  not  the  fault  of  plans  or  specifications  but  more  likely  the  fault  of 
the  contractor  through  inefficient  supervision.    When  a  contract  is  first  started  the  first 
duty  of  the  superintendent  should  be  the  inspection  of  the  soil  upon  which  the  footings 
are  to  be  placed,  before  any  concrete  is  poured,  as  many  times  it  becomes  necessary  to 
spread  footings  over  inferior  bearing  soil  in  order  to  secure  a  uniform  settlement  of  the 
entire  building  which  is  absolutely  essential  if  the  structure  is  to  remain  intact  without 
cracking.     The  cement  should  always  be  tested  for  fineness  of  quality  and  for  proper 
condition  before  using.    This  should  be  accomplished  by  laboratory  tests,  made  at  the 
factory  before  cars  are  shipped,  by  reputable  testing  laboratories  whose  reputation  is 
well  known.    In  like  manner  all  the  reinforcing  steel  should  be  tested  and  inspected  before 
shipment  from  the  factory  or  yards  of  the  steel  company  furnishing  the  material,  to  see 
that  the  quality  of  steel,  whether  hard  or  medium  steel  is  being  used,  or  whether  re- 
rolled  steel  is  being  substituted  for  virgin  steel.    In  like  manner  all  of  the  various  manu- 
factured material  should  be  inspected  and  approved  before  shipment.     This  will    do 
away  with  a  great  deal  of  lost  time  by  reason  of  material  rejected  at  delivery  to  the  build- 
ing site.     This  precaution  is  one  that  many  material  concerns  and  contractors  do  not 
want,  as  they  oft  times  gamble  on  the  fact  that  the  owners  are  in  a  hurry  for  the  building, 
and  may  accept  an  inferior  article  rather  than  to  wait  for  a  shipment  of  the  material 
specified.    Where  building  stone  is  specified,  this  should  be  inspected  at  the  quarries  to 
see  that  all  stone  is  taken  from  the  same  ledge  in  the  quarry  in  order  to  secure  uniformity 
of  color,  and  uniform  density  of  the  stone.    It  should  also  be  inspected  for  seams,  sand 
holes  and  other  imperfections.     Where  this  inspection  is  carried  out  [conscientiously, 
the  contractor  and  material  man  is  really  benefited  rather  than  otherwise,  as  the  reliable, 
conscientious  manufacturer  and  material  concern  will  never  question  this  inspection  as 
they  intend  to  deliver  satisfactory  work  anyway,  while  it  does  protect  the  owner  from  the 
irresponsible  contractor  or  material  men  whose  whole  hope  is  that  they  will  make  a  profit 
on  a  cheaper  article  by  underbidding  their  more  reliable  competitors.     If  careful  shop 
inspection  is  carried  out,  they  will  soon  learn  the  uselessness  of  substitution  and  a  more 
satisfactory  form  of  bidding  will  result.     The  architect's  inspection  of  millwork   and 
finishing  lumber  at  the  mill  has  in  many  instances  saved  the  mill  contractor  many  hun- 


140 PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 

dreds  of  dollars  in  the  correction  of  oversights  and  in  the  proper  preparation  of  millwork 
before  shipment.  Furthermore,  if  this  material  is  all  approved  before  shipment  and 
thoroughly  satisfactory  and  up  to  the  terms  of  the  specifications,  there  will  be  little 
ground  for  argument  on  the  part  of  the  contractor  or  material  concern,  and  little  friction 
at  the  building  proper,  and  the  duty  of  the  superintendent  or  clerk  of  the  work  at  the 
building  will  be  to  see  that  materials  are  properly  installed  and  that  proper  workmanship 
is  secured  as  the  work  progresses.  The  architect's  control  of  the  work  should  include 
inspection  of  the  heating  and  plumbing  and  other  mechanical  equipment  from  the  office 
of  the  heating  engineer,  as  this  part  of  the  work  progresses,  as  very  few  superintendents 
or  clerks  of  the  work  are  thoroughly  qualified  to  handle  both  the  general  construction 
and  the  mechanical  equipment.  The  architect  should  also  have  a  thoroughly  capable 
structural  engineer  either  employed  or  where  his  services  could  be  secured  to  pass  on 
the  merits  of  the  structural  steel,  reinforcing  steel  and  other  structural  parts  of  the  building, 
unless  the  architect  himself  is  a  capable  structural  engineer,  and  even  so,  it  is  well  to 
have  a  check  on  the  engineering  by  one  or  more  persons  to  obviate  structural  weaknesses 
which  might  occur  through  the  oversight  of  one  party.  The  school  board  will  do  well 
to  investigate  the  completeness  of  the  architect's  organization,  especially  if  they  con- 
template the  erection  of  a  very  large  and  important  structure,  as  the  completeness  of  the 
architect's  organization  may  mean  the  saving  of  many  thousands  of  dollars  to  the  client 
through  the  expert  services  of  several  men  in  the  various  departments  of  the  architect's 
organization.  The  larger  architect's  offices  invariably  employ  in  addition  to  their  regular 
drafting  department,  a  structural  engineer,  heating,  lighting  and  plumbing  engineer, 
a  managing  superintendent  or  department  and  an  accounting  department. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


141 


Chapter  Thirty -one 

PHOTOGRAPHS  and  PLANS 
of  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


df  Being  the  work  of 
several  architects  who 
have  planned  schools 
in  various  parts  of  the 
country. 

^f  A  large  number  of 
the  illustrations  are  by 
courtesy  of  the  West- 
ern Architect. 


142 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


OS 


3 


03 
O 


O 
•a 


02 
c3 


a 

P 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


143 


144 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


-m^lKi* 


Pipestone,  Minn.,  High,  Grade  and  Junior  School.    G.  L.  Lockhart,  Architect. 

CONSTRUCTION 

The  exterior  of  the  building  is  designed  along  the  lines  of  a  modern  gothic  and  is 
symmetrical  with  a  frontage  of  230  feet  and  a  depth  of  169  feet  in  the  greatest  dimension 
with  two  wings  projecting  120  feet  back. 

The  building  will  have  a  grade  floor  two  feet  and  ten  inches  below  the  level  of  the 
finished  grade  line,  and  a  first  and  second  floor.  The  first  floor  will  contain  all  of  the  grade 
rooms  with  short  easy  flights  of  steps  up  to  them,  causing  no  inconvenience  to  any  pupil. 
There  will  be  a  separate  entrance  for  the  grades  entering  from  the  east,  a  separate  entrance 
for  the  junior  school  entering  from  the  south  and  a  separate  entrance  for  the  high  school 
entering  from  the  north.  This  arrangement  will  permit  of  better  regulation  than  to  have 
departments  entering  from  all  entrances. 

The  grade  floor  will  contain  all  the  manual  training,  domestic  science,  agriculture, 
chemistry,  physics  and  commercial  departments. 

The  second  floor  will  contain  the  junior  and  high  school  study  halls  and  all  class 
rooms.  The  auditorium  will  have  its  main  entrance  on  the  ground  floor  to  avoid  the 
climbing  of  stairs  so  that  old  people  may  visit  the  school  auditorium  and  have  only  seven 
steps  downward  to  reach  the  level  of  the  auditorium  floor.  A  gallery  is  placed  above  the 
auditorium,  reached  from  the  first  floor  with  two  inclines  which  furnish  easy  egress  from 

the  gallery  levels.  A  stereop- 
ticon  booth  will  be  placed  in 
the  balcony  with  attachments 
for  moving  pictures  which  are 
becoming  a  very  considerable 
part  of  the  modern  educational 
program.  The  gymnasium  is 
placed  directly  in  the  rear  of 
the  auditorium  and  is  built 
with  ample  bleacher  space  for 
a  considerable  crowd.  Adja- 
cent to  gynmasium  and  open- 
ing thereto  are  showers  and 
lockers  for  boys  and  girls,  plan- 
ned to  enable  all  pupils  to 
enjoy  the  benefits  of  physical 
training.  A  careful  study  of 
the  growing  youth  has  demon- 
strated the  fact  that  a  proper 

IlAJE/^AT         tJ-OOB.       Pl-AA  I'll  1  .  • 

uu'ifrifuim.  physical    development   is    as 


PUBLIC        S  C  H  O  0  L'S 


145 


fully  essential  as  mental  de- 
velopment and  that  the  mental 
development  depends  largely 
on  the  physical  development, 
so  with  careful  physical  train- 
ing, the  anaemic,  physically 
weak,  stoop -shouldered  child 
maybe  developed  into  a  strong, 
healthy,  mentally  developed 
student  when  given  the  bene- 
fits of  the  gymnasium  under 
the  careful  supervision  of  an 
instructor. 

With  a  careful  considera- 
tion of  the  pupil's  welfare, 
toilet  facilities  are  arranged 
for  on  each  floor  to  eliminate 
the  climbing  of  stairways  by 
students,  each  floor  having  its 
proper  quota  of  fixtures  for 
boys  and  girls. 

The  building  will  be  erected 
of  non-combustible  materials 
so  that  Pipestone  need  never 
fear  a  repetition  of  the  fire 
loss  which  makes  this  new 
building  necessary.  Thisbuild- 
ing  is  also  being  planned  with 
a  view  to  the  future  so  that 
changing  conditions  in  the 
school  work  can  be  made  with- 
out excessive  expense.  The 
partition  walls  between  rooms 
are  built  of  light  tile,  easily  re- 
movable as  they  carry  no 
weight  so  that  building  in  the 
future  could  be  changed  into 
an  entire  high  school  or  an 
entire  grade  school  without  in 
any  way  affecting  the  struct- 
ural part  of  the  building  at  a 
small  expenditure  which  cov- 
ers the  change.  Also  as  the 
building  becomes  congested, 
additions  can  be  erected  upon 
a  pre-arranged  plan  which 
takes  into  consideration  the 
least  possible  expense,  also 
while  it  is  not  the  intention 
to  place  a  swimming  pool  in 
the  building  at  the  present 
time,  yet  an  arrangement  has 
been  made  without  increasing 
the  cost  in  any  way  so  that 
this  additional  convenience 
may  be  installed  at  a  later  date. 


jja.o  u  rt  d  ■  ]"jl  o  o  a.  •  P  i_  a  t\ 

JCALt 

L  <9    i    >    U    »   L 


■flK-^T  fLOOR.   •    pLAA 

W"IJ'"I.    II    U  tl  )|. 


3>VCOC\D       [LOOft        pLAPi 

«"■>"■■     -J     M    II    II. 


146 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Entrance  to  Classics  Building,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 
Shepley,'Rutan_&^Coolidge,  Architects. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


147 


WS^CY! DA r\CTL-To  "CLASSICS  •  E>UIl_DIAG"-  OOf*C? 


148 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Riverside  High  School  Building,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Van  Ryan  and  De  Gelleke,  Architects. 


Washington  High  School,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Van  Ryan  and  De  Gelleke,  Architects. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


149 


A.  M.  Joyce  School,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Malcomson  and  Higginbotham,  Architects. 


Ik 


Ncrtlicrn  High  School,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Malcomson  and  Higginbotham,  Architects. 


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150 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


Original  Perspective  and  Photo  of  Completed  Sheldon,  Iowa  High  School. 


Completed  Building 


PUBLIC        SCHOO  L  S 


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Belmond,  Iowa  School  Building  Erected  in  1910. 
G.  L.  Lockhart,  Architect. 


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William  B.  Ittner,  Architect. 


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Studer  Ave.  School,  Columbus,  Ohio.     D.  Ricbcl  and  Sons,  Architects. 


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Where  it  is  necessary  to  build  the  one  and  two-room  county  school  building  in  localities  too  sparsely  settled  to  make  it 
possible  to  build  larger  consolidated  schools,  the  small  buildings  should  be  planned  with  ventilation  humidified  air,  inside 
toilet  facilities,  unilateral  light,  play  room  space,  etc.,  to  enable  these  students  to  enjoy  the  same  healthful  and  sanitary 
conditions  made  possible  in  the  larger  schools. 


Bates  Union  School,  Court  land,  Cal.     B.  J.  Herold,  Architect,  Sacramento,  Cal. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


175 


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This  school  represents  an  interesting 
type  of  four-room  grade  school  with 
an  auditorium,  teachers'  room  and 
library.  The  auditorium  is  provided 
with  a  stage,  and  with  movable  chairs 
may  be  cleared  and  used  as  a  gymna- 
sium or  exercise  room  if  desired.  This 
building  designed  with  eight-inch  hol- 
low tile  walls  and  stucco  as  shown  by 
photograph  on  preceding  page  presents 
a  most  interesting  appearance  and  is 
economical  to  build.  This  type  of 
building  also  departs  from  the  stereotyped  two-story  plan  so  prevalent  all 
country.  


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This  grade  school  building  built  at  Sioux  Falls,  South  Dakota,  was  planned  by  Patten, 
Holmes  &  Flynn,  architects,  and  is  a  very  interesting  departure  from  the  old  two  or  three- 
story  type  of  school  building.  The  light  is  all  taken  from  overhead  as  shown  in  photograph 
of  auditorium,  kindergarten  and  stage,  also  by  Fig.  21,  page  19.  The  rooms  all  have 
windows  from  one  side,  that  may  be  curtained  to  exclude  the  light,  permitting -only  the 
skylighting  for  study  purposes.  On  dark  days  the  side  lights  may  be  exposed  to  furnish 
the  extra  light  needed.  This  combination  provides  for  an  adjustment  of  light,  making 
it  possible  to  graduate  the  quantity  of  light  to  meet  any  and  all  conditions,  furnishing  an 
abundance  of  light  on  the  darkest  day. 

Compare  the  plan  of  this  building  with  that  of  the  "Hiawatha"  school  at  Minne- 
apolis, Minnesota,  next  illustrated,  and  note  the  difference  in  the  shape  of  the  class  rooms. 
In  the  Sioux  Falls  building  the  short  side  of  the  room  is  exposed  while  in  the  Hiawatha 
school  the  long  side  is  exposed.    This  being  made  necessary  by  the  fact  that  the  Hiawatha 


176 


PftU  BLIC        SCHOOLS 


school  has  all  side  lighting  and  does  not  attempt  to  use  the  overhead  light,  this  being  the 
least  expensive  construction  and  generally  considered  equally  as  good.  The  same  general 
scheme  of  kindergarten  and  assembly  room  is  used.  Note,  however,  that  the  " Hiawatha" 
school  play  and  assembly  room  is  fitted  up  as  a  gymnasium  with  both  boys  and  girls 
lockers  and  shower  rooms,  with  separate  entrances  at  each  end  of  the  room  and  storage 
spaces  at  opposite  sides  for  gymnasium  equipment  and  collapsible  chairs.  Much  may  be 
said  in  favor  of  this  type  of  building.  Provision  must  be  made,  however,  for  ample  grounds 
and  a  slightly  increased  cost  of  construction  and  operating  expense  for  heating,  over  the 
more  compact  two  or  three-story  building. 


Grade  School  Building,  Sioux  Falls,  South  Dakota 


Auditorium,  Kindergarten  and  Stage,  Grade  School,  Sioux  Falls,  South  Dakota 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


177 


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Plan  and  Perspective  of  the  new  "Hiawatha"  School,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 
Stebbins  and  Hoxby,  Architects. 


178 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


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PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


179 


The  Bloomington  Minnesota  Consolidated  School  shown  on  the  preceding  page  is  a 
departure  from  the  ordinary,  in  that  it  combines  some  of  the  desirable  features  of  the 
two-story  and  one-story  types,  and  is  well  adapted  to  the  eighteen  acre  plot  on  which  it  is 
located. 

The  main  portion  of  the  school  is  contained  in  the  two  story  central  part  of  the 
building  while  the  assembly  and  gymnasium  is  placed  in  a  one-story  wing  at  one  end 
of  the  building  and  the  manual  training  shop  and  laboratories  are  placed  in  the  opposite 
wing.  This  gives  direct  access  from  the  outside  into  the  wings  one  step  above  the  grade 
line.  The  noise  from  the  manual  training  department  and  gymnasium  will  be  almost 
eliminated  and  will  not  be  annoying  to  the  students.  The  showers  and  lockers  for  the 
_j_    ,       , ,     j  1 1 1  ,  i  ,  gymnasium  are  located  un- 

|rj_.^^jiJ,    l^ad^bpl  ,,,        ,,[,  der   the   stage    and   make 

convenient  dressing  rooms 
when  the  stage  is  used  for 
entertainment  purposes. 
Note  also  that  direct  access 
to  the  stage  is  arranged  for 
from  the  front  vestibule. 

The  library  for  the  school 
is  also  used  as  a  circulating 
library  for  the  whole  con- 
solidated district  and  to 
accommodate  the  public,  is 
located  with  an  outside  en- 
trance through  the  main 
vestibule,  so  that  the  library 
may  be  used  when  the  entire 
school  is  locked  up. 

The  physics,  chemistry, 
botany,  biology  and  agri- 
cultural laboratories  are  all 


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180 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


combined  in  two  rooms  with  a  small  conservatory  projecting  from  the  south  wing  of  the 
building  adjacent  to  the  laboratory,  to  serve  as  a  growing  room  for  agriculture  and  the 
botany  classes. 

The  combined  Junior  and  High  School  Building  illustrated  on  this  and  the  preceding 
page  was  planned  for  a  square  city  block  with  entrances  on  two  sides  of  the  building. 
The  assembly  room  and  gymnasium  being  located  in  the  center  of  the  building  is  lighted 
from  skylights.  Folding  doors  are  placed  between  gymnasium  and  assembly  so  that 
bleachers  may  be  turned  around  and  used  for  an  overflow  crowd  when  the  assembly  is 
inadequate.  Note  that  the  rear  wall  of  stage  also  has  folding  doors  that  may  be  swung 
back  including  the  cross  corridor  as  a  part  of  the  stage,  thus  providing  stage  room  for  the 
largest  opera  company.  Convenient  access  to  corridors  is  provided  on  each  side  of  audi- 
torium on   both    floors 


on  Dotn  floors  so 
that  the  room  can  be  quick- 
ly emptied.  At  each  end  of 
main  corridor  on  ground 
floor  large  cloak  rooms  and 
ticket  windows  are  conven- 
iently placed  both  for 
crowds  to  the  auditorium 
and  to  the  gymnasium, 
where  visitors  wraps  may 
be  checked  and  tickets  is- 
sued. Note  also  the  light 
to  the  swimming  pool  and 
its  convenient  location  to 
locker  rooms.  All  voca- 
tional subjects,  superinten- 
dent's office,  etc.,  are  lo- 
cated on  ground  floor,  with 
Junior  and  High  School  As- 
semblies, with  all  class 
rooms  on  floor  above. 


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First  and  Second  Floor  Plans  Next  Page. 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


181 


LO/iGlTUDl/SAL  OtCTtOA 


182 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


On  this  and  the  next  two  preceding  pages,  a  plan  for  a  combined  junior  and  grade 
school  building  is  illustrated.  The  scheme  is  one  that  deserves  considerable  attention, 
as  several  interesting  features  are  shown,  principally  the  combination  of  assembly  and 
gymnasium.  By  examining  the  plans  it  will  be  seen  that  both  assembly  and  gymnasium 
are  thrown  together  by  a  rolling  partition,  and  have  direct  outside  entrances,  on  one  side 
through  a  vestibule  to  the  rear  one  step  above  ground,  on  the  other  side  across  the  corridor 
and  out  through  the  main  entrance.  Notice  the  longitudinal  sections  at  the  foot  of  the 
preceding  page.  Also  note  on  the  section  that  the  swimming  pool  is  placed  under  the 
gymnasium  bleachers,  with  entrances  to  swimming  pool  and  lockers  from  either  end  of 
gymnasium  with  lockers  placed  under  the  court.  (See  basement  plan  second  preceding 
page.)  The  rear  entrance  to  stage  is  one  step  above  grade  opening  on  the  court,  and  all 
dressing  rooms  are  placed  beneath  the  stage,  providing  ample  space  for  a  large  chorus  or 
opera  troupe.  An  orchestra  pit  is  also  provided  in  front  of  the  stage  with  entrance  from 
corridor  under  stage.  The  whole  object  in  this  plan  is  to  provide  facilities  for  bringing 
the  school  population  together  with  the  whole  town  into  the  school  for  entertainments, 

operas,  literary  society 
meetings,  lectures,  debates, 
etc.,  fostering  the  commu- 
nity spirit,  enabling  the  pa- 
rents, teachers  and  children 
to  get  in  closer  touch,  better 
each  to  understand  the 
other,  so  if  there  be  any 
who  should  criticise  this  as 
an  unnecessary  expenditure 
in  the  plans,  let  him  pause 
and  consider. 

An  excess  number  of  lock- 
ers makes  it  possible  for 
citizens  of  the  town  to  form 
clubs  for  athletic  work  in 
gymnasium  and  in  this  way 
the  school  can  furnish  for 
the  average  town  the  con- 
veniences of  the  city  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  where  the  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
would  be  unable  to  exist  or 
find  sufficient  patronage  to 
maintain  itself. 


J1I7ADA  HKilt  AND 

JUNIOR     XrtOOL 


CyL  LOCK  HAW 

ARCHITECT 
3t.  Paw,  Mwn 


X>A3IMI/iT   TlOOV. 


Pla/i 


PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


183 


b J»   °" 

liEVADA  H1GHAND 

JUNTO    SCHOOL 
NEVADA  IOWA. 


G-L  LOCK  HAW 
ARCHITECT 

3T.   PAULMiM. 


(^CUMD  FLODT2 

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PlArt 


All  the  preceding  plans 
are  of  the  low  spread-out 
type  of  building,  while  the 
Nevada,  Iowa  high  and 
junior  school,  illustrated  on 
this  and  the  following  page, 
is  a  compact  type  of  the 
small  school  accommoda- 
ting about  four  hundred 
pupils.  Manual  training 
and  domestic  science  de- 
partments were  placed  in 
one  of  the  old  buildings  (re- 
modeled) when  this  struct- 
ure was  built.  (See  small 
building,  page  13.)  A  street 
was  condemned  where  the 
new  building  now  stands 
and  the  entrances  to  the 
building  were  planned  to  be 
facing  the  sidewalk  on 
either  side  of  the  street  so  that  any  one  approaching  the  building  in  front,  their 
eyes  would  focus  on  the  entrance  to  the  building.  The  construction  of  the  building  is 
shown  by  figures  22,  23  and  24,  pages  22  and  23.  No  more  economical  type  of  construction 
can  be  found  for  the  three-story  building  than  this.  Interior  photographs  of  auditorium 
and  gymnasium  are  shown  on  pages  56  and  57,  and  they  indicate  very  little  expenditure, 
but  neatness  withal.  This  plan  is  arranged  so  that  all  light  is  taken  from  the  east  and 
west  with  no  north  or  south  lighted  rooms  in  the  building.  Toilet  facilities  are  provided 
on  each  floor  for  boys  and  girls  at  opposite  ends  of  the  building.  There  are  no  cloak  rooms, 
corridor  lockers  are  used  throughout  and  these  are  connected  to  exhaust  ventilators. 
The  corridors  are  well  lighted  from  windows  at  each  end  and  very  quiet  floors  are  secured 
by  the  use  of  insulite  mastic.  Toilet  rooms  are  enameled  with  washable  enamel  and  are 
easily  kept  clean  and  wholesome.  The  chemistry,  physics  and  agricultural  laboratory  are 
all  connected  to  exhaust 
ventilators  to  exhaust  all 
fumes  and  odors  quickly 
out  of  the  rooms.  The 
bookkeeping,  typewriting 
and  stenography  rooms  are 
all  connected  with  clear 
glass  partitions  so  one 
teacher  can  control  all  three 
rooms  and  observe  classes 
at  work. 


NEVADA 
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JUN10E.  OCttOOL 
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ARCHITECT 
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PUBLIC        SCHOOLS 


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Consolidated  School,  Haifa,  Iowa.     Designed  by  G.  L.  Loekhart,  Architect. 


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Consolidated  School  Building,  Carpenter,  Iowa.     G.  L.  Lockhart,  Architect. 


^ 


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TmS   BOOK  ON   THE  DATE  D«  ^                    „ 

W.LI-  INCREASE  TO  BO  «Nthe  sEV£NTH     DAY 

DAY     AND     TO     *!•"« 

OVERDUE. 


I   21    «* 


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JAN   7 1958 


1,1)  21-30m-6/82 


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^vERSITYofcaufornja 


LIBRARY 


RETURN       CIRCULATION  DEPARTMENT 

TO""^       202  Main  Library                          642-3403 

LOAN  PERIOD  1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

LIBRARY   USE 

This  book  is  due  before  closing  time  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 

DUE   AS   STAMPED   BELOW 

rr 

'<: 

- 

FORM  NO.  DD  6A,  1 2m,  6'76         UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 

BERKELEY,  CA  94720 

w^ 


